An ecologist is investigating the factors that determine the distribution and photosynthetic efficiency of the invasive brown seaweed Sargassum muticum in a rocky intertidal ecosystem.
Which of the following groups consists only of abiotic factors that directly influence the distribution or rate of photosynthesis of S. muticum?
Water temperature, photosynthetically active radiation (PAR), and dissolved nitrate concentration
Tidal exposure duration, wave exposure, and grazing pressure by the common periwinkle (Littorina littorea)
Ocean pH, hydrostatic pressure, and intraspecific competition for attachment sites on the rocky substrate
Salinity, water turbidity, and the abundance of epiphytic microalgae growing on the fronds