What you'll learn

• How training improves fitness by making the body adapt.
• The key principles of training: individual needs, specificity, progressive overload, FITT, overtraining and reversibility.
• How to calculate aerobic and anaerobic training zones using maximum heart rate.
• How to choose suitable training methods and intensities for different sports and performers.

How fitness is improved

Fitness improves when you train at the right level often enough for your body to adapt. An adaptation is a long-term change that helps the body cope better with exercise.

For example, if a cross-country runner trains regularly in their aerobic zone, their heart can become better at pumping blood and their muscles become better at using oxygen. This helps them maintain pace for longer.

Training must be challenging — but not random. GCSE PE focuses on planning training using clear principles so that improvement is safe, relevant and measurable.

Individual needs

Individual needs means training should match the performer, not just the sport.

Different people need different training because they may have different:

• ages
• current fitness levels
• strengths and weaknesses
• experience
• goals
• injury history
• access to facilities
• available training time

A beginner rugby player should not copy an elite rugby player’s weights programme. The elite player may cope with heavy loads and high frequency; the beginner may need lighter resistance, better technique and more recovery.

Applying individual needs

A netball goal shooter returning from an ankle injury may need lower-impact work first, such as cycling or controlled strength exercises, before high-impact jumping and landing drills.

Specificity

Specificity means training should be matched to the demands of the sport or activity. The body adapts to the type of training it actually does.

A marathon runner needs aerobic endurance, so long continuous runs are specific. A 100 m sprinter needs speed and power, so sprint intervals and plyometric training are more specific.

Specificity can include:

• the muscles used
• the energy system used
• the movement patterns used
• the speed of movement
• the fitness component being trained

Progressive overload

Progressive overload means gradually making training harder so the body continues to adapt.

If training stays exactly the same for too long, the performer may stop improving because the body has already adapted to that workload.

You can overload training by increasing:

• frequency — train more often
• intensity — train harder
• time — train for longer
• type — make the activity more demanding or more specific

A swimmer might begin with 20-minute aerobic swims and gradually progress to 30 minutes, then add interval sets at a higher intensity.

FITT: the four ways to plan training

FITT is a simple way to remember how to adjust training.

Frequency

Frequency means how often training happens, usually measured in sessions per week.

Example: a basketball player may complete fitness training three times per week alongside skills practice and matches.

Intensity

Intensity means how hard the training is.

It can be measured using:

• heart rate in bpm
• percentage of maximum heart rate
• weight lifted as a percentage of one-rep max
• speed, resistance or work rate
• perceived effort

For weight training, intensity often links to one-rep max, which is the maximum weight a performer can lift once with correct technique.

Time

Time means how long each training session or exercise bout lasts.

Example: a 30-minute continuous run develops aerobic endurance more than a 5-minute jog.

Type

Type means the training method used.

Examples include:

• continuous training for aerobic endurance
• interval training for speed or anaerobic endurance
• circuit training for muscular endurance or whole-body fitness
• weight training for strength or power
• plyometric training for explosive power
• flexibility training for range of movement

Training thresholds and target zones

A training threshold is the minimum intensity needed to cause fitness improvement. If you work too easily, your body may not need to adapt.

Heart-rate zones are used to plan intensity. Heart rate is measured in beats per minute, written as bpm.

For GCSE PE, use the simplified formula:

$$MaxHR=220-age$$

The two key target zones are:

• Aerobic target zone: 60% to 80% of MaxHR
• Anaerobic target zone: 80% to 90% of MaxHR

Aerobic target zone: 60% to 80%

Aerobic exercise uses oxygen to release energy. It is important for endurance activities such as long-distance running, cycling, swimming and football midfield play.

A performer training at 60% to 80% of MaxHR is usually working hard enough to improve cardiovascular endurance, but not so hard that they fatigue very quickly.

Anaerobic target zone: 80% to 90%

Anaerobic exercise releases energy without using oxygen as the main supply. It supports short, high-intensity efforts such as sprinting, repeated attacks in basketball, or a fast break in football.

Training at 80% to 90% of MaxHR is useful for sports requiring bursts of speed and power.

Overtraining

Overtraining happens when a performer trains too hard, too often, or with too little recovery.

Possible signs include:

• constant tiredness
• reduced performance
• increased injury risk
• poor motivation
• illness due to stress on the body

A gymnast who adds extra strength sessions every day without rest may become fatigued, making technique worse and increasing the risk of injury on landings.

Reversibility

Reversibility means fitness can be lost when training stops or is greatly reduced.

This might happen because of injury, illness, holidays, exam periods, or the off-season. For example, a swimmer who stops training for several weeks may lose cardiovascular endurance and muscular endurance, so race times may get slower.

To reduce reversibility, performers can maintain some training where possible. An injured runner might use swimming or cycling to keep aerobic fitness while reducing impact on the injured leg.

Choosing the right training method and intensity

When choosing training, you need to match the programme to the performer and the sport. Three big factors are especially important.

Fitness and sport requirements

Different sports need different fitness components.

A long-distance runner needs cardiovascular endurance, so continuous training in the aerobic zone is suitable. A shot putter needs power and strength, so weight training and plyometric training are more suitable.

Facilities available

Training must be realistic. A performer cannot plan a swimming programme if they cannot access a pool. A school footballer may use circuit training on the playground if a gym is unavailable.

Current level of fitness

Beginners need lower intensity and more gradual overload. Fitter performers can usually cope with higher intensity, more complex sessions and shorter rest periods.

Pulling the principles together

A strong training plan uses all the principles together.

For example, imagine a 15-year-old midfielder in football:

• Individual needs: they may lack stamina late in matches.
• Specificity: training should include running patterns similar to football, not only slow jogging.
• Progressive overload: increase intensity or duration gradually.
• FITT: train three times per week, at the correct heart-rate intensity, for suitable time, using interval and continuous training.
• Thresholds: use aerobic work for endurance and anaerobic intervals for repeated sprints.
• Avoid overtraining: include rest and avoid adding too many sessions.
• Avoid reversibility: maintain fitness during school holidays or injury where possible.