What you'll learn

• What “development” means, beyond just money.
• How development is measured using GDP per capita, HDI, inequality and corruption indices.
• Why development varies globally and within countries, including the UK.
• How aid, agreements, top-down projects and bottom-up projects try to reduce uneven development.

Development: the big idea

A narrow definition of development uses economic criteria — measures linked to money, production and jobs. For example, a country with a high average income may be described as economically developed.

A broader definition also includes social measures — things linked to people’s wellbeing, such as life expectancy, literacy, education and access to healthcare — and political measures, such as corruption, human rights, democracy and stability.

What contributes to human development?

Different factors can help or limit human development:

Measuring development

GDP per capita

GDP per capita is useful because it allows countries with different population sizes to be compared.

$$GDP\; per\; capita=\frac{total\; GDP}{population}$$

HDI, inequality and corruption

Other indicators help reveal what GDP can hide:

• Inequality means wealth, opportunities or services are not shared evenly. It can be measured using the Gini coefficient, income share of the richest groups, or regional differences.
• Political corruption means public power is used for private gain. A corruption index, such as the Corruption Perceptions Index, estimates how corrupt a country’s public sector is perceived to be.

The global pattern of development

The broad global pattern is that many high-income, high-HDI countries are in North America, Europe, Japan, South Korea, Australia and New Zealand. Many lower average development levels are found in parts of Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. Large emerging economies, such as China, India, Brazil and Mexico, often show rapid growth but major internal inequality.

This map is simplified, but it helps you describe the pattern at a global scale.

Between and within countries

Development varies between countries, such as Norway often ranking near the top of HDI tables while Niger often ranks much lower. Exact rankings change each year, so focus on the pattern rather than memorising one number.

Development also varies within countries. In the UK, London and the South East generally have higher average incomes and stronger access to high-paid services jobs than many post-industrial areas, such as parts of South Wales, North East England and former coalfield communities. In China, coastal provinces and cities such as Shanghai and Guangdong are generally more developed than some inland western regions.

Why development varies

Physical factors

Physical factors are natural features of the environment. Climate, relief, water supply, disease risk, natural hazards, resources and whether a country is landlocked can affect development. For example, landlocked countries may face higher trade costs, while areas with reliable water and fertile soils may support farming more easily.

Physical factors are not destiny. Good governance, technology and trade links can reduce disadvantages.

Historic factors

Historic factors are past events and processes that still affect places today. Colonialism, slavery, conflict, border creation and unequal trade relationships shaped many economies. For example, the Democratic Republic of the Congo has huge mineral wealth, but colonial exploitation, conflict and weak governance have limited wider human development.

Within the UK, the Industrial Revolution created strong manufacturing regions. Later deindustrialisation — the decline of traditional industries such as coal, steel and shipbuilding — contributed to job losses and lower incomes in some regions.

Economic factors

Economic factors include investment, trade, debt, employment structure, infrastructure and links to global markets. Countries that rely heavily on exporting one raw material may be vulnerable if global prices fall. Countries with varied industries, ports, technology and skilled workers may attract more investment.

In the UK, London benefits from finance, government decision-making, universities, transport links and global business connections. Some rural and former industrial areas have weaker transport links or fewer high-paid jobs, which can reduce opportunities.

Consequences for quality of life

Uneven development affects everyday life in many ways:

Uneven development can also create migration pressures. Some people move from rural to urban areas, or from lower-income countries to higher-income countries, to seek work, safety, education or healthcare.

Strategies to reduce uneven development

Aid can be short-term emergency aid, such as food and shelter after an earthquake, or long-term development aid, such as funding schools, clinics, wells and training. It can save lives and build capacity, but it may create dependency, be tied to donor interests, or be affected by corruption.

These agreements can tackle problems that cross borders, but progress may be slow and countries may disagree over costs and responsibilities.

Top-down projects include dams, ports, mines, motorways and industrial zones. They can create jobs and infrastructure quickly, but may cause debt, displacement or environmental damage if local people are ignored.

Bottom-up projects include community wells, local clinics, small-scale irrigation, microfinance and training schemes. They are often cheaper and better matched to local needs, but may have limited funding and may not transform a whole national economy.