Works of scholars

What you'll learn

• What the bodhisattva ideal means and why it matters in Buddhism.
• How Arthur Basham and Walpola Rahula compare on the bodhisattva doctrine.
• How the Lotus Sutra presents wisdom, liberation, loving-kindness and skilful means.
• How to evaluate debates about Theravada, the bodhisattva path, and transfer of karmic merit.

Why this topic matters

This is the “works of scholars” section for Edexcel Buddhism, so you are not just learning Buddhist teaching in general. You need to compare two named scholars — Arthur Basham and Walpola Rahula — and use their ideas to build an essay with accurate knowledge and clear evaluation.

The key debate is: is the bodhisattva ideal mainly a Mahayana development, or is it already present in Theravada Buddhism too?

The basic Buddhist background

Buddhism teaches that beings are trapped in samsara, the cycle of birth, death and rebirth, shaped by karma, intentional action with moral consequences. The goal is nirvana, liberation from greed, hatred and delusion.

Different Buddhist traditions describe the ideal liberated person in different ways.

An arhat or arahant is one who has attained nirvana by following the Buddha’s teaching. In Theravada Buddhism, the arahant is a central ideal. In Mahayana Buddhism, the bodhisattva is often presented as the higher ideal because of the explicit commitment to universal compassion.

Arthur Basham on the bodhisattva ideal

Arthur Basham was a historian of Indian religion and culture. His approach is mainly historical: he explains how Buddhist ideas developed over time, especially with the rise of Mahayana Buddhism.

For Basham, the bodhisattva doctrine is strongly connected with Mahayana’s growth. Earlier Buddhism focused more on the arahant ideal, while Mahayana presented the bodhisattva as a more universal and compassionate model. The bodhisattva does not seek liberation only for themselves, but works for the liberation of all beings.

Basham also draws attention to celestial bodhisattvas, such as Avalokiteshvara, who became objects of devotion. This shows Mahayana becoming more devotional and accessible to ordinary Buddhists, not just monastic specialists.

Strengths and limits of Basham

Basham is useful because he shows how Mahayana Buddhism developed a rich doctrine of compassion, worship, vows and cosmic bodhisattvas. However, his approach can make the difference between Theravada and Mahayana sound too sharp, as if the bodhisattva ideal suddenly appeared in Mahayana with no earlier roots.

Walpola Rahula on the bodhisattva ideal

Walpola Rahula was a Sri Lankan Buddhist monk and scholar. His approach is more internal to Buddhism: he is concerned to correct misunderstandings about Theravada and Mahayana.

Rahula argues that the bodhisattva ideal is not absent from Theravada. In Pali texts, the Buddha before his enlightenment is called the bodhisatta. The Jataka stories, which tell of the Buddha’s previous lives, show him developing virtues such as generosity, patience and compassion over many lifetimes. Theravada also recognises the future Buddha Metteyya.

Rahula therefore challenges the idea that Theravada is merely individualistic while Mahayana alone is compassionate. He accepts that Mahayana develops the bodhisattva ideal more fully, but he denies that Mahayana owns compassion exclusively.

Here is the comparison you need to master:

The Lotus Sutra and Mahayana Buddhism

The Lotus Sutra is one of the most important Mahayana scriptures. It presents the Buddha’s teaching as universal and compassionate, and it strongly supports the bodhisattva ideal.

A central teaching is the One Vehicle: although Buddhism may seem to contain different paths, all are ultimately directed towards Buddhahood. Even those who thought they had reached final liberation as arhats are shown to have the potential to become Buddhas.

Wisdom

In the Lotus Sutra, wisdom means recognising that the Buddha’s teachings may be adapted for different audiences. Some teachings are provisional, not false, because they guide beings step by step towards liberation.

Liberation

Liberation is not presented as a private escape from suffering. The highest goal is Buddhahood, which includes the liberation of others. This fits the bodhisattva ideal: awakening is inseparable from compassion.

Loving-kindness and compassion

The Lotus Sutra presents bodhisattvas as motivated by universal care. The figure of Never Disparaging Bodhisattva, who honours others because they will become Buddhas, expresses the idea that every being has spiritual potential.

Skilful means in the burning house parable

In the parable of the burning house, a father persuades his children to leave a dangerous burning house by promising them different carts. Once they are safe, he gives them something even greater. The father represents the Buddha, the burning house represents samsara, and the carts represent different teachings or vehicles.

Stages and perfections of the bodhisattva path

The bodhisattva path begins with bodhicitta, the awakened intention to attain Buddhahood for the benefit of all beings.

The path is then developed through the perfections, known as pāramitās. In many Mahayana traditions, the six key perfections are:

• Generosity: giving without attachment.
• Moral discipline: ethical conduct.
• Patience: endurance and forgiveness.
• Energy: determined effort.
• Meditation: mental cultivation.
• Wisdom: insight into reality.

Some Mahayana lists expand these to ten, adding skilful means, vows, power and knowledge. The bodhisattva may also be described as progressing through ten bhūmis, or stages, leading towards Buddhahood.

The following map shows how the path fits together:

Their place in particular traditions

In Mahayana Buddhism, the bodhisattva path is central. Traditions such as Tibetan Buddhism place great importance on bodhisattva vows, compassion practices and the aspiration to work for all beings. Devotion to bodhisattvas such as Avalokiteshvara also becomes important.

In Theravada Buddhism, the bodhisatta path is respected but usually seen as the exceptional career of a future Buddha, not the required path for every Buddhist. The arahant ideal remains central, but the bodhisatta ideal is still present in stories of the Buddha’s past lives and in the expectation of Metteyya.

Debate: is the bodhisattva ideal really Mahayana?

This is where Basham and Rahula are most useful.

Basham helps you explain why the bodhisattva doctrine feels distinctively Mahayana: it becomes a universal ideal, linked with cosmic bodhisattvas, devotional practice, skilful means and the salvation of all beings.

Rahula helps you avoid exaggeration. He argues that Theravada has always known the bodhisatta path through the Buddha’s previous lives, the perfections and the ideal of future Buddhahood. The difference is therefore one of emphasis and development, not total opposition.

Debate: transfer of karmic merit

Another key issue is whether a bodhisattva can help others by transferring or dedicating merit.

The difficulty is that karma is usually understood as linked to one’s own intentional actions. If karma is morally personal, can merit really be transferred to someone else?

In Theravada practice, merit may be shared or dedicated, but this is often explained carefully: another being benefits by rejoicing in the good deed, which becomes a wholesome mental act for them. So merit is not simply moved like money from one account to another.

In Mahayana Buddhism, bodhisattvas dedicate their merit to all beings. This supports the compassionate ideal, but it raises philosophical questions about whether another person’s liberation can be assisted by someone else’s merit. Defenders argue that Buddhism already teaches interdependence, so spiritual progress is not isolated.

Pulling it together

A strong essay should not simply choose Basham or Rahula. The best judgement is likely to be balanced: Basham explains the distinctive Mahayana development of the bodhisattva ideal, while Rahula shows that this development has roots in earlier Buddhist tradition and should not be used to caricature Theravada.

So your overall line could be: the bodhisattva doctrine is both continuous and transformed. It is continuous because Theravada contains the bodhisatta ideal, the Jataka stories and the perfections. It is transformed because Mahayana texts such as the Lotus Sutra make the bodhisattva path central, universal and cosmic.