Islam, migration and religious pluralism

What you'll learn

• How Muslim migration to Britain from the 1950s onwards helped create a multicultural society.
• Why British Islam is internally diverse, not one single viewpoint or community.
• How freedom of religion in European human-rights law shapes Muslim life in secular societies.
• How Muslims debate exclusivism, inclusivism, salvation, minority groups, and freedom of religious expression.

1. The background: migration and multicultural Britain

After the Second World War, Britain needed workers in industries such as textiles, transport, steel, catering and the NHS. From the 1950s onwards, many Muslims migrated to the UK, especially from South Asia: Pakistan, Bangladesh and India. Later Muslim migration also included East African Asians, Turkish Cypriots, Somalis, Iraqis, Afghans, Syrians, Bosnians, Iranians, Nigerians and others.

At first, many migrants expected to work temporarily and return home. Over time, family reunification, settlement, new generations born in Britain, and the building of mosques, community centres and schools helped create permanent British Muslim communities.

Britain therefore became more visibly religiously diverse. Islam was no longer only something associated with countries abroad; it became part of British public life through mosques, halal food, Muslim schools, Islamic charities, chaplaincy, Muslim politicians, media voices and interfaith work.

2. Diversity within the Muslim community in Britain

It is a common mistake to speak about “the Muslim community” as if it has one ethnicity, one theology or one political view. British Muslims are highly diverse.

Important forms of diversity include:

• Ethnic and cultural diversity: Pakistani, Bangladeshi, Indian, Arab, Turkish, Somali, Kurdish, Iranian, West African, Bosnian, Malaysian, white British converts and many others.
• Denominational diversity: most British Muslims are Sunni, but there are also Shi‘a communities, including Twelver Shi‘a, Isma‘ilis and others.
• Legal and devotional traditions: British Sunni Muslims may identify with Deobandi, Barelvi, Salafi, Sufi or other movements.
• Generational diversity: first-generation migrants may think differently from British-born Muslims negotiating school, university, work and citizenship.
• Levels of practice: some Muslims are highly observant; others identify culturally or ethically with Islam.

3. Freedom of religion and secular pluralism

In European law, freedom of religion is protected by Article 9 of the European Convention on Human Rights. In the UK, this is given domestic effect through the Human Rights Act 1998.

Article 9 protects two related things:

• The inner right to hold beliefs, sometimes called freedom of thought, conscience and religion.
• The outward right to manifest religion, meaning to express or practise it publicly, for example through dress, worship, dietary rules or teaching.

However, outward manifestation can be limited when necessary for public safety, public order, health, morals, or the rights and freedoms of others.

Modern secular states usually try to govern citizens without making one religion the legal basis for everyone. The UK is complicated because it has an established Church of England, but in practice it operates as a liberal pluralist society where Muslims, Christians, Jews, Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists, atheists and others have legal rights.

4. How this context influences Muslim thought

Living in a pluralist society has encouraged new forms of Muslim reflection. Some thinkers speak of minority fiqh, meaning Islamic legal and ethical reasoning for Muslims living as minorities in non-Muslim states.

Questions include:

• Can Muslims be fully British and fully Muslim?
• Should Muslims participate in secular democracy?
• How should Muslims relate to people of other faiths or no faith?
• Are non-Muslims saved or rewarded by God?
• How should Muslims defend religious freedom while also accepting criticism and free speech?

5. Exclusivism in Muslim thought

In Islam, exclusivism is often based on verses such as Qur’an 3:85:

“Whoever seeks a religion other than Islam, it will never be accepted of him, and in the Hereafter he will be among the losers.”

This can be read to mean that Islam, as revealed through the Prophet Muhammad, is the final and complete revelation of God’s will. Related ideas include the Prophet Muhammad as the Seal of the Prophets in Qur’an 33:40, and Islam as the completed religion in Qur’an 5:3.

Exclusivism can strengthen Muslim identity in a pluralist society. It gives clear boundaries: Islam is not merely one lifestyle option among many, but the final revelation from Allah. This may be especially important for communities worried about assimilation or loss of faith.

However, exclusivism can create difficulties. If expressed harshly, it may encourage separation from wider society or dismiss the moral and spiritual seriousness of non-Muslims. It can also create tensions within Islam.

Attitudes to minority Muslim groups

Some Muslim groups are treated as controversial by other Muslims. A key example is the Ahmadiyya movement, whose followers identify as Muslim. Many mainstream Sunni and Shi‘a scholars reject Ahmadi claims because of beliefs about Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, which they see as conflicting with the finality of prophethood.

Attitudes to minority groups vary widely. Some Muslims emphasise doctrinal boundaries; others warn that excessive takfir damages the ummah, the worldwide Muslim community, and contradicts Islamic values of justice and mercy.

6. Inclusivism in Muslim thought

Muslim inclusivism often argues that Islam is the complete revelation, but God’s justice and mercy are not limited by human labels. Some Qur’anic passages support a more open approach, especially towards Abrahamic faiths.

Qur’an 2:62 says that those who believe, Jews, Christians and Sabians, “whoever believes in Allah and the Last Day and does righteousness” will have their reward with their Lord. Qur’an 5:69 gives a similar message. Qur’an 29:46 also says to the People of the Book: “Our God and your God is one.”

For non-Abrahamic faiths, inclusivists may point to verses such as Qur’an 16:36, which says God sent a messenger to every community, and Qur’an 35:24, which says no people were without a warner. Qur’an 5:48 says God could have made humanity one community, but instead gave different communities a “law and a way” and commands them to “compete in good deeds.”

This does not automatically mean all religions are equally true. Many Muslim inclusivists still believe Islam is the final revelation. Their point is that God may judge people according to their sincerity, knowledge, circumstances and response to the guidance available to them.

Are good deeds without faith rewarded?

This is a major debate.

An exclusivist answer says that good deeds without true faith may have worldly value but not ultimate saving value. This view may appeal to Qur’an 3:85 and to the importance of tawhid, belief in the oneness of God.

An inclusivist answer says God is perfectly just and merciful, so sincere moral action matters. Qur’an 17:15 says God does not punish until a messenger has been sent. This can support the idea that people who never properly encountered Islam may be judged differently from those who knowingly rejected it.

The hardest case is good deeds by someone with no belief in God at all. Some Muslims argue that God can still reward moral action as He wills. Others argue that ultimate reward requires faith, because good deeds should be oriented towards Allah.

7. Freedom of religious expression in society

Muslim responses to freedom of expression include two sides.

First, Muslims often defend their own freedom to express Islam publicly: wearing hijab or niqab, building mosques, praying, fasting, giving da‘wah, eating halal food, and educating children in Islamic values.

Second, Muslims also respond to expression about Islam, including criticism, satire, cartoons of the Prophet Muhammad, Qur’an burning, Islamophobic abuse and public debate about Shari‘a.

Islamic sources can support both commitment and restraint. Qur’an 2:256 says, “There is no compulsion in religion.” Qur’an 16:125 says to invite people to God’s way “with wisdom and good instruction.” Qur’an 6:108 warns Muslims not to insult what others worship, because this may lead them to insult Allah in return.

In a secular society, many Muslims argue for legal protection against hatred and discrimination, but not necessarily for banning all offence. Others believe blasphemy against the Prophet is so serious that society should restrict such expression. A balanced essay should recognise the tension: free speech protects Muslim da‘wah and religious identity, but unrestricted speech can also enable hostility towards Muslims.

8. Quick comparison: exclusivism and inclusivism

For evaluation, avoid simply choosing the “nice” view. Ask which interpretation best accounts for the whole Qur’anic picture: final revelation, divine justice, human responsibility, and God’s mercy.