What you'll learn

• How to tell the difference between consensus, conflict, structural and social action theories.
• Where major perspectives like functionalism, Marxism, feminism, Weberian theory and interactionism fit.
• How to apply these theories to UK society using AO2 examples.
• How to evaluate theories through comparison, evidence and methods.

Before the theories: the basic building blocks

Sociological theories are different ways of explaining how society works. For this topic, you need to keep asking: what shapes human behaviour? Is it mainly large-scale social forces, or the meanings people create in everyday interaction?

The two core AQA themes run through this whole topic. Socialisation, culture and identity helps you discuss how people learn and negotiate meanings. Social differentiation, power and stratification helps you discuss inequality between groups.

The two axes: consensus/conflict and structure/action

Consensus theories argue that society is held together by shared values and agreement about basic norms. They often focus on social order, integration and stability.

Conflict theories argue that society is shaped by inequality, competition and domination. They focus on who benefits from social arrangements and who is disadvantaged.

Structural theories explain behaviour mainly through large-scale social forces outside individuals. These are usually macro theories, meaning they look at society as a whole.

Social action theories explain behaviour by focusing on meanings, interpretations and interactions. These are usually micro theories, meaning they look at small-scale everyday life.

Use this grid as a mental map. It is a simplification, because some theorists cross categories, but it helps you avoid mixing up separate debates.

Consensus and structural theory: functionalism

Functionalism is a structural consensus theory. It sees society as a system of interconnected parts, such as the family, education, religion, the economy and the legal system. Each part performs functions that help maintain social order.

Durkheim argued that society has social facts: external forces, such as laws and moral rules, that shape individuals. He was interested in social solidarity, meaning the sense of belonging that holds people together. Parsons developed the idea of value consensus, where people broadly agree on society’s core values. Merton added that institutions can have manifest functions intended outcomes, latent functions unintended outcomes, and dysfunctions harmful consequences.

For AO2, you could apply functionalism to UK schools teaching “British values”, the NHS creating collective responsibility for health, or national rituals such as Remembrance Sunday producing shared identity.

For AO3, functionalism can be criticised for being too optimistic. It often underplays conflict, coercion and inequality. Marxists ask: whose values are being presented as “shared”? Feminists ask: does social order benefit men more than women? Interactionists argue that functionalism ignores the meanings people attach to everyday situations.

Conflict and structural theories: Marxism and feminism

Marxism is a structural conflict theory focused on capitalism. Marx argued that capitalist society is divided between the bourgeoisie, who own the means of production, and the proletariat, who sell their labour. The economic base shapes the superstructure, including education, law, religion and media. These institutions can spread ideology, meaning ideas that justify inequality.

Althusser argued that education and media act as ideological state apparatuses, passing on ruling-class ideas. Gramsci developed the idea of hegemony, where the ruling class maintains power partly through consent, not just force.

Feminism is also a conflict approach, but it focuses on patriarchy, meaning male domination. Walby argued that patriarchy operates in several sites, including paid work, the household, culture, sexuality, violence and the state. Connell’s work on masculinities shows how gender power can be reproduced through cultural expectations about “real men”.

For AO2, Marxists might discuss private schools, inherited wealth, insecure work or media ownership. Feminists might discuss the gender pay gap, unpaid domestic labour, violence against women and girls, or gendered expectations in subject choice.

For AO3, conflict theories are strong on power and stratification, but can become over-deterministic if they imply people are simply controlled by capitalism or patriarchy. Contemporary UK society also includes legal rights, social mobility and diverse identities, so you should consider how class, gender, ethnicity, age and sexuality intersect.

Social action theories: Weber, interactionism and labelling

Social action theory focuses on the meanings individuals attach to their actions. Weber argued that sociologists should use Verstehen, meaning empathetic understanding, to grasp people’s motives. He identified different types of action, including rational action, value-driven action, traditional action and emotional action.

Weber is useful because he bridges structure and action. He recognised class inequality, but also argued that status and party, meaning organised political power, shape life chances.

Symbolic interactionism studies how meanings are created through interaction. Mead argued that the self develops through taking the role of others. Goffman used dramaturgy, comparing social life to a performance where people manage impressions. Becker’s labelling theory argues that deviance is not simply an act itself, but the result of social reactions. Cicourel showed how police and youth justice officials use assumptions and typifications when deciding who seems suspicious.

For AO2, you might apply interactionism to teacher labelling, stop and search, social media identity, mental health stigma, or how people present themselves differently at school, work and online.

For AO3, social action theories are strong on validity, because they explore meanings in depth. However, they can underplay wider structures such as class, patriarchy and racism. A good answer often links labelling to power: not everyone has the same ability to label others.

Bridging structure and agency

Many sociologists reject a simple either/or choice between structure and action. Giddens’ structuration theory argues that structures shape action, but actions also reproduce or change structures. For example, school rules shape pupils’ behaviour, but pupils and teachers also recreate the school culture every day.

Bourdieu also bridges the gap. Habitus means deeply learned dispositions shaped by upbringing. Capital means resources, such as economic capital, cultural capital and social capital. Field means a social arena, such as education or work, where people compete for advantage. This helps explain why choices can feel personal while still reflecting classed, gendered and ethnic inequalities.

Theory and methods link

Theories affect what sociologists count as good evidence.

Structural theories often fit with positivism, the view that sociology should study society using objective, systematic methods. They may use official statistics, surveys or large-scale comparisons to examine patterns in class, gender, ethnicity, crime, education or health. These methods can be reliable and representative, but may miss meanings and lived experience.

Social action theories often fit with interpretivism, the view that sociology should understand people’s meanings. They may use unstructured interviews, participant observation or ethnography. These can produce rich validity, but they are often time-consuming, harder to replicate and less representative.

Practical issues include cost, time, access and sampling. Ethical issues include informed consent, confidentiality and avoiding harm, especially when researching deviance, stigma or vulnerable groups. Theoretical issues include the trade-off between reliability, validity and representativeness.