What you'll learn

• How the behaviourist perspective explains behaviour as learned from the environment.
• The key learning processes: classical conditioning, operant conditioning and, as an extension, observational learning.
• Research that illustrates behaviourism, including Watson and Rayner (1920), Skinner (1938) and Bandura et al. (1961).
• How to evaluate behaviourism and compare it with the psychodynamic perspective.

The basic idea: behaviour is learned

A perspective is a broad way of explaining behaviour. The behaviourist perspective argues that psychology should focus on observable behaviour: what people or animals actually do, rather than hidden thoughts or unconscious conflicts.

Behaviourists are strongly linked to the nurture side of the nature/nurture debate. They argue that behaviour is shaped by experience. A baby is often described, in behaviourist thinking, as a blank slate: behaviour develops through learning.

Key behaviourist assumptions

Observable behaviour

Behaviourists prefer to study behaviour that can be directly measured, such as pressing a lever, salivating, crying, hitting a doll, or avoiding a feared object.

This links to psychology as a science, because observable behaviour can be recorded, counted and compared between participants or conditions.

Environmental determinism

This makes behaviourism quite deterministic. It suggests that if you know a person’s learning history, you can partly predict their behaviour.

Stimulus and response

For example, a loud noise is a stimulus; flinching or crying may be the response.

Classical conditioning: learning by association

Classical conditioning is learning through association. It happens when a person or animal learns that two things go together.

The classic example is Pavlov’s dogs. Pavlov found that dogs could learn to salivate to a bell if the bell was repeatedly paired with food.

Key terms:

• The unconditioned stimulus, or UCS, naturally produces a response.
• The unconditioned response, or UCR, is the natural response to the UCS.
• The neutral stimulus, or NS, does not originally produce the response.
• The conditioned stimulus, or CS, is the formerly neutral stimulus after learning.
• The conditioned response, or CR, is the learned response to the CS.

Watson and Rayner (1920): Little Albert

Watson and Rayner used classical conditioning to condition fear in an infant known as Little Albert. Albert was initially not afraid of a white rat. The rat was paired with a loud noise, which naturally caused fear. After pairings, Albert showed fear when presented with the rat alone.

This illustrates behaviourism because it suggests an emotional response, such as fear, can be learned from the environment.

Operant conditioning: learning by consequences

Operant conditioning is learning through the consequences of behaviour. If a behaviour is followed by a pleasant consequence, it is more likely to be repeated. If it is followed by an unpleasant consequence, it is less likely to be repeated.

This is strongly associated with Skinner (1938), who used the Skinner box to study animals such as rats and pigeons. For example, a rat might learn to press a lever if lever pressing is followed by food.

Reinforcement and punishment

There are two main types:

• Positive reinforcement: something pleasant is added after a behaviour, so the behaviour increases.
• Negative reinforcement: something unpleasant is removed after a behaviour, so the behaviour increases.

Observational learning: learning by watching others

Behaviourism traditionally focused on direct learning: your own associations and consequences. However, social learning theory extends this by arguing that people can also learn by watching others.

A model is someone whose behaviour is observed and potentially copied. Vicarious reinforcement occurs when you see someone else being rewarded, making you more likely to copy them.

Bandura argued that observational learning involves mental processes:

• Attention: noticing the model’s behaviour.
• Retention: remembering the behaviour.
• Reproduction: being able to copy the behaviour.
• Motivation: having a reason to copy it, such as reward.

Bandura, Ross and Ross (1961): Bobo doll study

Bandura et al. exposed children to adult models who behaved aggressively or non-aggressively towards a Bobo doll. Children who saw an aggressive model later showed more aggressive behaviour, including imitation of the model’s specific actions.

This supports behaviourist ideas because behaviour was learned from the environment. However, it is not “pure” behaviourism, because Bandura also emphasised internal mental processes such as attention and motivation.

Applications of the behaviourist perspective

Behaviourism is useful because it has led to practical ways of changing behaviour.

Treating phobias

A phobia can be explained as a learned fear through classical conditioning. Behaviourist treatments aim to create new learning.

For example, systematic desensitisation gradually pairs the feared object with relaxation, so the person learns a calmer response. This is based on counterconditioning, where a new response replaces the old conditioned fear response.

Token economies

A token economy uses operant conditioning. Desired behaviours are rewarded with tokens, which can later be exchanged for privileges or rewards. This has been used in schools, prisons and psychiatric settings.

Education and parenting

Teachers and parents often use behaviourist principles, such as praise, rewards, shaping and clear consequences.

Shaping means reinforcing small steps towards a desired behaviour. For example, a teacher may praise a student first for attempting an answer, then later for giving a more detailed answer.

Strengths of the behaviourist perspective

It is scientific

Behaviourism uses observable, measurable behaviour. Many behaviourist studies use controlled laboratory methods, which can increase reliability because procedures can be repeated.

It has useful applications

Behaviourist principles have real-world uses in therapy, education, parenting, animal training and behaviour management. This gives the perspective high usefulness.

It is supported by research

Studies such as Watson and Rayner (1920), Skinner (1938) and Bandura et al. (1961) show that behaviour can be shaped by learning.

Weaknesses of the behaviourist perspective

It can be reductionist

Behaviourism can reduce human behaviour to stimulus-response learning, ignoring thoughts, emotions, biology and individual meaning.

It may underestimate free will

Behaviourism is deterministic because it suggests behaviour is controlled by environmental forces. Critics argue that humans can reflect, choose and resist environmental influences.

Animal research may not generalise

Much behaviourist research used animals. This allows control, but humans have language, self-awareness and complex social reasoning, so findings may not always apply directly.

Ethical concerns

Watson and Rayner’s Little Albert study would be highly unethical by modern British Psychological Society standards. Albert was caused distress, could not give informed consent, and was not properly deconditioned.

Bandura et al. (1961) also raises ethical questions because children were exposed to aggressive models and may have been encouraged to behave aggressively. Modern researchers must consider protection from harm, informed consent, right to withdraw and debriefing.

Comparison with the psychodynamic perspective

OCR expects you to know how the behaviourist perspective is similar to and different from the psychodynamic perspective.

Similarities

Both perspectives can be seen as deterministic. Behaviourism says behaviour is determined by learning history; psychodynamic psychology says behaviour is shaped by unconscious forces and early childhood experiences.

Both also have applications to therapy. Behaviourism led to treatments such as systematic desensitisation, while the psychodynamic perspective led to therapies aiming to uncover unconscious conflicts.

Differences

The behaviourist perspective focuses on observable behaviour and often uses controlled experiments. The psychodynamic perspective focuses on unconscious mental processes, which are harder to measure scientifically.

Behaviourism is mainly linked to nurture, because it emphasises learning from the environment. The psychodynamic perspective includes early experience too, but also emphasises internal drives and unconscious conflict.

Behaviourist therapies often aim to change symptoms directly. Psychodynamic therapies aim to understand the underlying unconscious causes of symptoms.

How to structure an essay answer

For OCR essay-style answers, keep AO1, AO2 and AO3 separate in your mind:

• AO1: accurately describe principles and concepts, such as conditioning, reinforcement and observable behaviour.
• AO2: apply the correct behaviourist concept to a new scenario.
• AO3: evaluate using evidence, ethics, usefulness, reductionism, determinism, validity, reliability and comparison with psychodynamic psychology.