Context 1: THE ORBITAL COMMONS

Extract B: Congestion in the Orbital Commons

In recent years, the rapid commercialisation of space has led to an exponential increase in the number of satellites launched into Low Earth Orbit (LEO). While mega-constellations promise global high-speed internet, they have placed unprecedented pressure on the orbital environment. Historically, space exploration was dominated by a few national agencies, but the entry of private commercial operators has created a highly competitive 'space race' for optimal orbital altitudes.

This surge in activity has raised alarm bells over space debris and orbital congestion. Spent rocket boosters, defunct satellites, and fragments from collisions remain in orbit for decades, travelling at hypervelocities and endangering active missions. Economists point out that the orbital environment represents a global commons. Because no nation holds sovereign property rights over outer space, outer space is treated as a free resource. Operators have little financial incentive to voluntarily invest in active debris removal or to de-orbit satellites immediately at the end of their operational lives, as the private cost of leaving debris in orbit is virtually zero. At the same time, operators face a powerful incentive to deploy as many satellites as possible to secure prime orbital slots before they are occupied by competitors. Without clearly defined and globally enforceable rights, the risk of a 'Kessler syndrome'—where a cascade of collisions renders LEO completely unusable—highlights a severe market failure.