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internal and external causes determine behaviour beyond their control."},{"text":"Whether behaviour is inherited genetically or learned through experience.","correct":false,"explanation":"This describes the nature-nurture debate, which compares inherited influences with environmental influences. The freewill-determinism debate asks whether behaviour is freely chosen or caused by uncontrollable forces."},{"text":"Whether behaviour is explained as a whole or reduced to basic components.","correct":false,"explanation":"This describes the holism-reductionism debate about levels of explanation. The freewill-determinism debate instead asks whether behaviour is freely chosen or caused by forces outside control."},{"text":"Whether behaviour is unique to individuals or governed by general laws.","correct":false,"explanation":"This describes the idiographic-nomothetic debate concerning individual uniqueness and general laws. Freewill versus determinism concerns choice and whether forces outside control cause behaviour."}]},{"id":"a30f5c1c-b0d6-42da-a7df-6e9abf42bdda","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Free will links to [ ], the capacity to act intentionally and make decisions.","back":"Free will links to agency, the capacity to act intentionally and make decisions.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"agency","correct":true,"explanation":"Agency is a person’s capacity to act intentionally, make decisions and exercise some conscious influence over what they do."},{"text":"autonomy","correct":false,"explanation":"Autonomy means independence from external direction, but the specific psychological term for the capacity to act intentionally and make decisions is agency."},{"text":"self-efficacy","correct":false,"explanation":"Self-efficacy is belief in one’s ability to succeed at a task, not the capacity for intentional action and decision-making, which is called agency."},{"text":"intentionality","correct":false,"explanation":"Intentionality refers to actions being purposeful, but the broader capacity to act intentionally and make decisions is termed agency."}]},{"id":"2a568893-250e-46bd-aadd-bdf2d86264fc","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Free will is not [ ]; it means some [ ] over decisions.","back":"Free will is not random behaviour; it means some conscious control over decisions.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Free will is not random behaviour; it means some conscious control over decisions.","correct":true,"explanation":"Free will involves intentional choice rather than unpredictability. It assumes that people can exercise at least some conscious influence over their decisions."},{"text":"Free will is not deliberate behaviour; it means some conscious control over decisions.","correct":false,"explanation":"Deliberate action is closely associated with free will rather than excluded by it. Free will is distinguished from random behaviour and requires some conscious control over decisions."},{"text":"Free will is not random behaviour; it means some unconscious control over decisions.","correct":false,"explanation":"Unconscious influences operate without awareness and therefore do not establish free choice. Free will excludes mere randomness and requires some conscious control over decisions."},{"text":"Free will is not automatic behaviour; it means some external control over decisions.","correct":false,"explanation":"Control by outside circumstances describes determinism rather than free will. Free will is not mere random behaviour; it involves some conscious control over decisions."}]},{"id":"a0dc8e5c-6071-4862-80ee-7e751ba0bc4f","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which position says genuine free choice is an illusion?","back":"Hard determinism.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Hard determinism.","correct":true,"explanation":"Hard determinism holds that every action has prior causes, leaving no genuine freedom of choice; the subjective experience of choosing is therefore an illusion."},{"text":"Soft determinism.","correct":false,"explanation":"Soft determinism allows meaningful choice when actions follow a person’s own motives without external coercion. Hard determinism instead treats genuine free choice as illusory."},{"text":"Libertarianism.","correct":false,"explanation":"Libertarianism maintains that people possess genuine freedom and could have acted otherwise. Hard determinism is the position that regards free choice as an illusion."},{"text":"Biological determinism.","correct":false,"explanation":"Biological determinism explains behaviour through physiological causes, but it is not the overarching philosophical position explicitly claiming genuine free choice is an illusion; that is hard determinism."}]},{"id":"7e8e8a91-1426-4b1b-a563-edbe93c9bb70","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which deterministic explanation is illustrated by Milgram’s authority figure, Yale setting, prods and shock generator?","back":"Situational determinism.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Situational determinism.","correct":true,"explanation":"Situational determinism explains behaviour through immediate external pressures. In Milgram’s study, the authority figure, prestigious setting, verbal prods and apparatus constrained participants’ actions."},{"text":"Biological determinism.","correct":false,"explanation":"Biological determinism attributes behaviour to genes, hormones, neurotransmitters or brain structures. Milgram’s obedience findings emphasise immediate contextual pressures, illustrating situational determinism."},{"text":"Psychic determinism.","correct":false,"explanation":"Psychic determinism traces behaviour to unconscious conflicts and motives. Milgram manipulated visible features of the immediate context, so his study illustrates situational determinism."},{"text":"Environmental determinism.","correct":false,"explanation":"Environmental determinism commonly emphasises behaviour learned through conditioning or observation. Milgram’s authority, setting, prods and equipment were immediate situational pressures, making situational determinism more precise."}]},{"id":"03c99f3e-fe90-407c-a403-72637acb9a5f","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which form of determinism explains behaviour through genes, hormones, neurotransmitters or brain structures?","back":"Biological determinism.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Biological determinism.","correct":true,"explanation":"Biological determinism argues that physiological factors such as inherited genes, hormonal activity, neurotransmitter levels and brain structures cause or constrain behaviour."},{"text":"Environmental determinism.","correct":false,"explanation":"Environmental determinism attributes behaviour to learning and experience, such as conditioning or imitation. Explanations based on genes, hormones and neural mechanisms are biologically deterministic."},{"text":"Situational determinism.","correct":false,"explanation":"Situational determinism focuses on immediate external circumstances and social pressures. Genes, hormones, neurotransmitters and brain structures are internal physiological causes associated with biological determinism."},{"text":"Psychic determinism.","correct":false,"explanation":"Psychic determinism explains actions through unconscious conflicts and motives, particularly in psychodynamic theory. Physiological causes such as genes and neurotransmitters indicate biological determinism."}]},{"id":"63341d31-4b78-4f0a-a59a-013988a902ba","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which form of determinism explains aggression through observing and imitating rewarded adult models?","back":"Environmental determinism.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Environmental determinism.","correct":true,"explanation":"Environmental determinism explains behaviour as shaped by experience. Observational learning of aggression from rewarded adult models shows how environmental reinforcement and modelling influence actions."},{"text":"Biological determinism.","correct":false,"explanation":"Biological determinism would explain aggression through genes, hormones, neurotransmitters or brain structures. Learning aggression by observing rewarded models is an environmental explanation."},{"text":"Situational determinism.","correct":false,"explanation":"Situational determinism emphasises immediate social pressures that directly constrain behaviour. Acquiring aggression through observation and vicarious reinforcement instead illustrates environmental learning over time."},{"text":"Psychic determinism.","correct":false,"explanation":"Psychic determinism attributes aggression to unconscious drives or conflicts. Imitating rewarded adult models is social learning produced by environmental influences, not hidden motives."}]},{"id":"17b0e2b1-3429-449d-8798-68d9fcc7124b","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which form of determinism explains behaviour through unconscious conflicts and hidden motives?","back":"Psychic determinism.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Psychic determinism.","correct":true,"explanation":"Psychic determinism, associated with Freud, proposes that behaviour results from unconscious drives, conflicts and motives, even when people are unaware of these causes."},{"text":"Biological determinism.","correct":false,"explanation":"Biological determinism explains behaviour using physiological causes such as genes, hormones and neural structures. Unconscious conflicts and hidden motives belong to psychic determinism."},{"text":"Environmental determinism.","correct":false,"explanation":"Environmental determinism explains behaviour through learning and experience, including conditioning and observation. Explanations involving unconscious conflicts and concealed motives are examples of psychic determinism."},{"text":"Situational determinism.","correct":false,"explanation":"Situational determinism attributes behaviour to immediate external circumstances and social pressure. Hidden motives and unconscious conflicts are internal psychodynamic causes described by psychic determinism."}]},{"id":"2f83bc6e-6606-4b15-bca1-f07eeae7af43","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Humanistic psychology emphasises [ ], conscious experience, self-determination and [ ].","back":"Humanistic psychology emphasises personal growth, conscious experience, self-determination and choice.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Humanistic psychology emphasises personal growth, conscious experience, self-determination and choice.","correct":true,"explanation":"Humanistic psychologists view people as active agents who can make choices, pursue personal growth and direct their own development through conscious decisions."},{"text":"Humanistic psychology emphasises unconscious conflict, conscious experience, self-determination and repression.","correct":false,"explanation":"Unconscious conflict and repression belong to the psychodynamic approach. Humanistic psychology instead emphasises personal growth and choice as aspects of individual agency."},{"text":"Humanistic psychology emphasises classical conditioning, conscious experience, self-determination and reinforcement.","correct":false,"explanation":"Conditioning and reinforcement are behaviourist concepts that stress environmental determination. Humanistic psychology instead focuses on personal growth and the capacity for choice."},{"text":"Humanistic psychology emphasises genetic inheritance, conscious experience, self-determination and maturation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Genetic inheritance and maturation reflect biological explanations of behaviour. Humanistic psychology places greater emphasis on personal growth and freely made choices."}]},{"id":"eda16ff4-0298-4f91-b4ab-0048e4c1e0b4","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why can Bocchiaro et al. 2012 support a free-will interpretation?","back":"Some participants disobeyed or whistle-blew despite pressure to obey.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Some participants disobeyed or whistle-blew despite pressure to obey.","correct":true,"explanation":"The participants’ different responses to the same situational pressure suggest they retained some capacity to choose whether to obey, disobey or report the unethical request."},{"text":"All participants obeyed the unethical request despite pressure to resist.","correct":false,"explanation":"This wrongly assumes behaviour was uniform, when some participants disobeyed or whistle-blew. Their resistance supports the view that people can exercise choice under social pressure."},{"text":"Some participants obeyed without experiencing pressure despite freedom to resist.","correct":false,"explanation":"The study deliberately placed participants under pressure from an authority figure. Free will is supported because some nevertheless disobeyed or whistle-blew rather than complying."},{"text":"No participants disobeyed or whistle-blew despite freedom to resist.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the study’s evidence: some participants did disobey or whistle-blow despite pressure to obey, showing that the situation did not determine one response."}]},{"id":"9c957715-ee6d-4201-bc00-39a56aec263e","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which position says behaviour is influenced by causes, but people can choose within limits?","back":"Soft determinism.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Soft determinism.","correct":true,"explanation":"Soft determinism accepts that behaviour has causes while maintaining that people can exercise choice when they act within the constraints imposed by those causes."},{"text":"Hard determinism.","correct":false,"explanation":"Hard determinism rejects genuine free choice because behaviour is viewed as fully caused. Soft determinism instead allows choice within biological, psychological and environmental limits."},{"text":"Biological determinism.","correct":false,"explanation":"Biological determinism explains behaviour through genes, hormones or neural processes rather than defining freedom within causal limits. That combined position is soft determinism."},{"text":"Psychic determinism.","correct":false,"explanation":"Psychic determinism claims behaviour is caused by unconscious conflicts and drives. Soft determinism is the position that causal influences and limited choice are compatible."}]},{"id":"6e4214a5-acda-469b-9b07-33fee70d6dbc","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Soft determinism is also called [ ].","back":"Soft determinism is also called compatibilism.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"compatibilism","correct":true,"explanation":"Compatibilism holds that determinism and free will can coexist: behaviour may be caused, yet a person can still make choices within causal constraints."},{"text":"incompatibilism","correct":false,"explanation":"Incompatibilism argues that free will and determinism cannot both be true. Soft determinism is instead called compatibilism because it treats them as compatible."},{"text":"fatalism","correct":false,"explanation":"Fatalism claims outcomes are inevitable regardless of human action. Soft determinism is called compatibilism because it allows meaningful choice within causal limits."},{"text":"libertarianism","correct":false,"explanation":"Libertarianism defends free will by rejecting determinism, rather than reconciling the two. Soft determinism is called compatibilism because it combines causation with limited choice."}]},{"id":"fd33728d-9618-4ffe-a12d-7a0f322dc236","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"In Milgram 1963, [ ] of participants did not continue to [ ].","back":"In Milgram 1963, 35% of participants did not continue to 450 volts.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"In Milgram 1963, 35% of participants did not continue to 450 volts.","correct":true,"explanation":"Milgram found that 65% administered the maximum 450-volt shock, so the remaining 35% stopped before reaching that maximum level."},{"text":"In Milgram 1963, 65% of participants did not continue to 450 volts.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the two groups: 65% continued to the maximum shock level, while 35% refused to continue to 450 volts."},{"text":"In Milgram 1963, 35% of participants did not continue to 300 volts.","correct":false,"explanation":"The 35% figure refers to participants who stopped before the maximum of 450 volts, not specifically before 300 volts. Every participant reached at least 300 volts."},{"text":"In Milgram 1963, 100% of participants did not continue to 450 volts.","correct":false,"explanation":"This ignores the high obedience rate: 65% continued to 450 volts. Only 35% stopped before reaching the maximum shock level."}]},{"id":"b599ac8c-24ce-471a-a8bb-4e2cd28f83ae","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What soft-determinist conclusion follows from Milgram’s 65% vs 35% split?","back":"Social pressure shapes obedience, but does not mechanically fix it.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Social pressure shapes obedience, but does not mechanically fix it.","correct":true,"explanation":"The majority obeyed, showing a strong situational influence, but 35% resisted. This supports soft determinism because pressure shapes behaviour without guaranteeing it."},{"text":"Social pressure determines obedience, and mechanically fixes it.","correct":false,"explanation":"This is a hard determinist interpretation and cannot explain why 35% resisted under the same pressure. The findings suggest social pressure shapes obedience without fixing it."},{"text":"Social pressure cannot affect obedience, because choice completely controls it.","correct":false,"explanation":"The 65% obedience rate indicates that situational pressure had a substantial effect. Soft determinism concludes that pressure shapes behaviour while still leaving some scope for choice."},{"text":"Social pressure shapes resistance, but always prevents obedience.","correct":false,"explanation":"Most participants obeyed to 450 volts, so pressure did not always produce resistance or prevent obedience. It shaped behaviour without mechanically determining one universal response."}]},{"id":"da4d76d8-5843-4923-997b-8b4d838a23cc","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which study supports environmental determinism through imitation of aggression?","back":"Bandura, Ross and Ross 1961.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Bandura, Ross and Ross 1961.","correct":true,"explanation":"Children who observed an aggressive model later imitated aggressive actions, supporting environmental determinism by showing how behaviour can be shaped through social learning."},{"text":"Milgram, Bickman and Berkowitz 1969.","correct":false,"explanation":"This study investigated obedience to people wearing different uniforms, not children’s imitation of aggression. The relevant study was Bandura, Ross and Ross 1961."},{"text":"Bocchiaro, Zimbardo and Haney 2012.","correct":false,"explanation":"Bocchiaro et al. investigated obedience, disobedience and whistle-blowing rather than imitation of aggression. Bandura, Ross and Ross 1961 provides the relevant evidence."},{"text":"Loftus and Palmer 1974.","correct":false,"explanation":"Loftus and Palmer studied how leading questions affect eyewitness memory, not aggressive imitation. Environmental learning of aggression was demonstrated by Bandura, Ross and Ross 1961."}]},{"id":"b82b7bb5-84b4-443d-bdd0-af2618fc8124","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why does Bandura et al. 1961 weaken a hard determinist conclusion?","back":"Not every child behaved identically.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Not every child behaved identically.","correct":true,"explanation":"Children exposed to similar models showed variation in their behaviour. This weakens hard determinism because the environment did not produce an identical, inevitable response in everyone."},{"text":"Every child copied all aggressive actions.","correct":false,"explanation":"The children did not all reproduce every aggressive action. Individual variation shows that modelling influenced behaviour but did not mechanically determine an identical response."},{"text":"No child imitated the aggressive model.","correct":false,"explanation":"Many children did imitate the model’s aggression, which supports environmental influence. Hard determinism is weakened because not every child behaved identically."},{"text":"Every child behaved without environmental influence.","correct":false,"explanation":"Exposure to aggressive models affected later behaviour, so environmental influence was evident. However, variation between children means that influence did not produce identical behaviour."}]},{"id":"9009087f-7f36-4f29-8970-00fa68936616","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How did Sperry 1968 support biological determinism?","back":"Brain structure affected conscious experience and behaviour.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Brain structure affected conscious experience and behaviour.","correct":true,"explanation":"Sperry’s split-brain research showed that altering communication between brain hemispheres changed perception and behaviour, supporting the view that biological brain structures determine psychological experience."},{"text":"Reinforcement affected conscious experience and behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"Sperry did not investigate reinforcement as the main cause of behaviour. His split-brain findings showed that brain structure affected conscious experience and behaviour, supporting biological determinism."},{"text":"Social context affected conscious experience and behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses biological determinism with social determinism. Sperry found that changes to communication between the hemispheres affected conscious experience and behaviour."},{"text":"Brain structure affected only unconscious reflexes.","correct":false,"explanation":"Sperry’s participants displayed changes in conscious perception and voluntary responses, not merely unconscious reflexes. This linked brain structure to conscious experience and behaviour."}]},{"id":"1cf94435-9bf0-41f7-9f5a-e962652528d5","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What cause did Freud use to explain Little Hans’ horse phobia?","back":"Unconscious psychosexual conflict.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Unconscious psychosexual conflict.","correct":true,"explanation":"Freud interpreted Little Hans’ fear as the displaced expression of an unconscious psychosexual conflict associated with the Oedipus complex, rather than as a directly learned fear."},{"text":"Classically conditioned fear.","correct":false,"explanation":"Classical conditioning is a behaviourist explanation, not Freud’s account. Freud attributed the horse phobia to unconscious psychosexual conflict connected with Little Hans’ Oedipus complex."},{"text":"Observed parental anxiety.","correct":false,"explanation":"Although observational learning can explain some phobias, Freud did not use it here. He interpreted the phobia as an expression of unconscious psychosexual conflict."},{"text":"Inherited biological vulnerability.","correct":false,"explanation":"A genetic vulnerability would be a biological explanation of the phobia. Freud instead proposed that Little Hans’ fear resulted from unconscious psychosexual conflict."}]},{"id":"0c5b2c64-6875-42a8-b297-8325ab5b9508","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What scientific strength does determinism give psychology?","back":"It encourages cause-and-effect research, enabling systematic study and prediction.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It encourages cause-and-effect research, enabling systematic study and prediction.","correct":true,"explanation":"Determinism assumes that behaviour has identifiable causes, allowing psychologists to test causal relationships systematically and use established patterns to predict future behaviour."},{"text":"It encourages subjective personal interpretations, enabling systematic study and prediction.","correct":false,"explanation":"Personal interpretations are associated with subjective approaches and do not establish causation. Determinism encourages cause-and-effect research, allowing systematic study and prediction."},{"text":"It encourages rejection of controlled experiments, enabling systematic study and prediction.","correct":false,"explanation":"Rejecting controlled experiments would weaken scientific testing rather than strengthen it. Determinism supports cause-and-effect research so behavioural causes can be studied and predictions generated."},{"text":"It encourages unfalsifiable causal explanations, enabling systematic study and prediction.","correct":false,"explanation":"Unfalsifiable explanations cannot be tested or disproved, so they are not a scientific strength. Determinism encourages testable cause-and-effect research and prediction."}]},{"id":"874129a2-130f-4811-a331-51a68d3716ad","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why is free will difficult to test scientifically?","back":"It is hard to prove choices were not influenced by hidden causes.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It is hard to prove choices were not influenced by hidden causes.","correct":true,"explanation":"Even when a person reports choosing freely, unobserved biological, psychological or environmental factors may have influenced the decision, making genuine independence from causes difficult to demonstrate."},{"text":"It is hard to prove choices were influenced strongly by hidden causes.","correct":false,"explanation":"Scientists can often find evidence that choices were influenced, but this supports determinism rather than explaining free will’s testing problem. The difficulty is proving no hidden cause influenced them."},{"text":"It is hard to prove choices were experienced consciously by individual people.","correct":false,"explanation":"Conscious awareness can be investigated through self-report and other methods, although imperfectly. The deeper problem is proving that choices were not influenced by hidden causes."},{"text":"It is hard to prove choices were predicted accurately by scientific theories.","correct":false,"explanation":"Behavioural predictability can be measured statistically and does not by itself establish free will. The scientific difficulty is demonstrating that hidden causes did not influence a choice."}]},{"id":"0dc887e1-ff23-46df-b623-fd88eecbbe24","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Nature/nurture asks [ ] matters; freewill/determinism asks whether behaviour is [ ].","back":"Nature/nurture asks what kind of cause matters; freewill/determinism asks whether behaviour is caused or chosen.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Nature/nurture asks what kind of cause matters; freewill/determinism asks whether behaviour is caused or chosen.","correct":true,"explanation":"Nature/nurture distinguishes between biological and environmental types of cause, whereas freewill/determinism concerns whether behaviour results from causes or an individual’s choices."},{"text":"Nature/nurture asks whether behaviour is chosen matters; freewill/determinism asks whether behaviour is caused or chosen.","correct":false,"explanation":"Whether biology or environment matters is the substantive nature/nurture question, but its conceptual focus is the kind of cause. Freewill/determinism asks whether behaviour is caused or chosen."},{"text":"Nature/nurture asks what kind of cause matters; freewill/determinism asks whether behaviour is inherited or learned.","correct":false,"explanation":"The first distinction is accurate, but inherited versus learned describes nature/nurture rather than freewill/determinism. The latter asks whether behaviour is caused or chosen."},{"text":"Nature/nurture asks whether behaviour is caused matters; freewill/determinism asks whether behaviour is biological or environmental.","correct":false,"explanation":"These distinctions have been reversed. Nature/nurture concerns the kind of cause involved, while freewill/determinism concerns whether behaviour is caused or chosen."}]},{"id":"90377105-6aff-40f7-9f0f-375e9a0f4ef4","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why is soft determinism often more holistic than hard determinism?","back":"It accepts several influences plus agency.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It accepts several influences plus agency.","correct":true,"explanation":"Soft determinism recognises that several biological, psychological and environmental influences may constrain behaviour while retaining a role for conscious agency within those constraints."},{"text":"It accepts one influence without agency.","correct":false,"explanation":"A single determining influence is reductionist and leaves no meaningful role for choice, making this closer to hard determinism. Soft determinism accepts several influences plus agency."},{"text":"It accepts several influences without agency.","correct":false,"explanation":"Recognising several influences is broader, but completely rejecting agency remains a hard deterministic position. Soft determinism combines multiple influences with a limited capacity for choice."},{"text":"It accepts unrestricted agency without influences.","correct":false,"explanation":"Unrestricted agency ignores the biological, psychological and environmental constraints recognised by soft determinism. Soft determinism accepts several influences while preserving limited agency."}]}]}],"examCountdown":{"examDate":"2027-05-10","paperLabel":"Paper 1"},"heading":"Freewill/determinism","title":"Freewill/determinism Flashcards","topbar":{"backHref":"/as-level/psychology/ocr/flashcards"},"topicSidebar":"$L36"}]}],"topicId":"c4d1d165-09c1-5854-b90a-17701968dd11","walled":"$L37"}],"$L38","$L39"]