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experience."},{"text":"Behaviour and thinking remain fixed after childhood.","correct":false,"explanation":"This assumes development stops after childhood. Behaviour and thinking change over time, with development continuing through adolescence, adulthood and old age."},{"text":"Behaviour and thinking are determined entirely at birth.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses development with strict genetic determinism. Behaviour and thinking change over time through interactions between biological maturation and environmental experience."},{"text":"Behaviour and thinking change only through conscious choice.","correct":false,"explanation":"This overlooks unconscious learning and biological maturation. Behaviour and thinking change over time even when individuals do not deliberately choose to develop."}]},{"id":"ec380b34-b206-4009-89af-5eafc09032da","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Why does developmental psychology not mean children only?","back":"Development can occur across the whole lifespan.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Development can occur across the whole lifespan.","correct":true,"explanation":"Developmental psychology examines changes from conception through childhood and adulthood to old age, so its subject matter covers the whole lifespan."},{"text":"Development can occur across childhood and adolescence only.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reflects the common misconception that development ends after adolescence. Development can occur across the whole lifespan, including during adulthood and old age."},{"text":"Development can occur only before physical maturity.","correct":false,"explanation":"This equates development solely with physical growth. Cognitive, emotional and social development can occur across the whole lifespan, long after physical maturity."},{"text":"Development can occur during infancy alone.","correct":false,"explanation":"Infancy involves rapid development, but it is not the only developmental period. Changes can occur throughout the whole lifespan, from conception to old age."}]},{"id":"27952dc6-a0dc-45b4-9012-07475bc4184f","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Maturation means [ ] as the body and nervous system grow.","back":"Maturation means biologically driven development as the body and nervous system grow.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"biologically driven development","correct":true,"explanation":"Maturation is biologically driven development produced by the growth of the body and nervous system, rather than being acquired primarily through experience."},{"text":"environmentally learned development","correct":false,"explanation":"This describes change produced by experience and learning rather than maturation. Maturation is biologically driven development resulting from bodily and nervous-system growth."},{"text":"socially transmitted development","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses maturation with socialisation, through which culture influences behaviour. Maturation is biologically driven development associated with growth of the body and nervous system."},{"text":"consciously directed development","correct":false,"explanation":"Maturational changes do not depend on a person's deliberate choices. Maturation is biologically driven development arising as the body and nervous system grow."}]},{"id":"8caade8c-2f7a-467c-b3ea-7e0461306f21","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"A relatively lasting change in behaviour or knowledge due to experience is [ ].","back":"A relatively lasting change in behaviour or knowledge due to experience is learning.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"learning","correct":true,"explanation":"Learning is a relatively lasting change in behaviour or knowledge caused by experience, distinguishing it from temporary states or biologically programmed maturation."},{"text":"maturation","correct":false,"explanation":"Maturation results mainly from biologically programmed growth, not experience. A relatively lasting change in behaviour or knowledge due to experience is learning."},{"text":"reflex action","correct":false,"explanation":"A reflex action is an automatic response to a stimulus, not an experience-based lasting change. The defined process is learning."},{"text":"innate behaviour","correct":false,"explanation":"Innate behaviour is biologically inherited rather than acquired through experience. A lasting change in behaviour or knowledge caused by experience is learning."}]},{"id":"69983e6e-326b-4a71-88e9-5526ff2a7af5","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Through socialisation, what do children learn?","back":"Society's norms, values and expected behaviours.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Society's norms, values and expected behaviours.","correct":true,"explanation":"Socialisation teaches children the norms, values and behaviours expected within their society, helping them participate appropriately in their culture and social groups."},{"text":"Biological reflexes, instincts and inherited characteristics.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses socially learned behaviour with innate characteristics. Through socialisation, children learn society's norms, values and expected behaviours rather than inheriting them biologically."},{"text":"Only the rules formally taught at school.","correct":false,"explanation":"This makes socialisation too narrow because families, peers and media also transmit culture. Children learn society's norms, values and expected behaviours through many agents."},{"text":"Universal behaviours shared by every culture.","correct":false,"explanation":"This overlooks cultural variation in social expectations. Socialisation teaches the particular norms, values and expected behaviours of a child's society."}]},{"id":"22677f9c-9686-4ab9-832c-4ab64fd3c9d3","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What makes a developmental stage different from earlier or later phases?","back":"Behaviour or thinking is qualitatively different.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Behaviour or thinking is qualitatively different.","correct":true,"explanation":"A developmental stage involves a distinct kind or organisation of behaviour and thinking, not merely a greater amount of an existing ability."},{"text":"Behaviour or thinking is quantitatively greater.","correct":false,"explanation":"This describes an increase in amount or skill rather than a distinct stage. A developmental stage is defined by behaviour or thinking being qualitatively different."},{"text":"Behaviour or thinking is temporarily disrupted by experience.","correct":false,"explanation":"Temporary disruption does not define a developmental stage. Stages are distinguished because behaviour or thinking is qualitatively different from that in other phases."},{"text":"Behaviour or thinking is identical but performed more quickly.","correct":false,"explanation":"A change in speed is quantitative, not a new developmental stage. Stage theories propose that behaviour or thinking becomes qualitatively different."}]},{"id":"fcd375c9-ae1d-451c-9ed1-eaa4263e6967","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Development is [ ] if gradual, but [ ] if it occurs in distinct stages.","back":"Development is continuous if gradual, but discontinuous if it occurs in distinct stages.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Development is continuous if gradual, but discontinuous if it occurs in distinct stages.","correct":true,"explanation":"Continuous development involves gradual, cumulative change, whereas discontinuous development involves separate stages marked by qualitatively distinct patterns of behaviour or thinking."},{"text":"Development is discontinuous if gradual, but continuous if it occurs in distinct stages.","correct":false,"explanation":"The two concepts have been reversed. Gradual development is continuous, while development involving distinct, qualitatively different stages is discontinuous."},{"text":"Development is continuous if gradual, but continuous if it occurs in distinct stages.","correct":false,"explanation":"The first term is correct, but distinct stages are not continuous. Gradual change is continuous, whereas change through separate stages is discontinuous."},{"text":"Development is discontinuous if gradual, but discontinuous if it occurs in distinct stages.","correct":false,"explanation":"The second term is correct, but gradual change is not discontinuous. Gradual development is continuous, while development through distinct stages is discontinuous."}]},{"id":"43d84ea0-0271-42b9-804d-f1459a7d63b9","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Nature/nurture asks whether behaviour is mainly influenced by [ ] or [ ].","back":"Nature/nurture asks whether behaviour is mainly influenced by biology and genes or experience and environment.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Nature/nurture asks whether behaviour is mainly influenced by biology and genes or experience and environment.","correct":true,"explanation":"The nature/nurture debate compares biological and genetic influences with influences arising from experience, upbringing and the wider environment."},{"text":"Nature/nurture asks whether behaviour is mainly influenced by experience and environment or biology and genes.","correct":false,"explanation":"The influences are reversed relative to the labels. Nature refers to biology and genes, while nurture refers to experience and environment."},{"text":"Nature/nurture asks whether behaviour is mainly influenced by biology and genes or thoughts and emotions.","correct":false,"explanation":"Thoughts and emotions are psychological processes, not the definition of nurture. Nurture refers to experience and environment, contrasted with biology and genes."},{"text":"Nature/nurture asks whether behaviour is mainly influenced by culture and upbringing or experience and environment.","correct":false,"explanation":"Both phrases describe nurture influences, so the nature side is missing. Nature refers to biology and genes, while nurture refers to experience and environment."}]},{"id":"b8090b7b-ee24-4091-bb99-89c38e3144b5","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"A researcher tracks the same children's moral reasoning from age 10 to 16. Which design is strongest?","back":"A longitudinal design.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A longitudinal design.","correct":true,"explanation":"A longitudinal design repeatedly studies the same participants over an extended period, allowing the researcher to examine how each child’s moral reasoning develops between ages 10 and 16."},{"text":"A cross-sectional design.","correct":false,"explanation":"A cross-sectional design compares different age groups at one time rather than following the same children. Tracking one group from ages 10 to 16 requires a longitudinal design."},{"text":"A matched pairs design.","correct":false,"explanation":"A matched pairs design uses different participants paired on relevant characteristics. Because the researcher follows the same children over several years, the appropriate design is longitudinal."},{"text":"An independent groups design.","correct":false,"explanation":"An independent groups design allocates different participants to separate conditions. Repeatedly assessing the same children as they age instead makes this a longitudinal design."}]},{"id":"8c948158-be22-4c08-9319-74529d9da932","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What problem occurs when participants drop out of a longitudinal study?","back":"Attrition.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Attrition.","correct":true,"explanation":"Attrition is the loss of participants from a study over time. It can bias longitudinal findings if those who remain differ systematically from those who leave."},{"text":"Cohort effect.","correct":false,"explanation":"A cohort effect concerns differences between groups born in different periods, not participants leaving a study. Participant dropout during longitudinal research is called attrition."},{"text":"Social desirability.","correct":false,"explanation":"Social desirability occurs when participants give answers they consider socially acceptable. Participants withdrawing or becoming unavailable during a longitudinal study is known as attrition."},{"text":"Maturation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Maturation refers to natural psychological or biological changes over time, not the loss of participants. Dropout from a longitudinal sample is specifically called attrition."}]},{"id":"56be6c9d-ee53-4afc-a300-804505c1e93d","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"In cross-sectional research, what is the term for age differences caused by historical or cultural factors rather than age?","back":"A cohort effect.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A cohort effect.","correct":true,"explanation":"A cohort effect occurs when age groups differ because they grew up in different historical or cultural circumstances, rather than because of developmental changes associated with age."},{"text":"An age effect.","correct":false,"explanation":"An age effect is a genuine difference associated with development or ageing. Differences caused by generations experiencing distinct historical or cultural conditions are cohort effects."},{"text":"A maturation effect.","correct":false,"explanation":"A maturation effect results from natural developmental changes within participants. In cross-sectional research, historically or culturally produced differences between generations are called cohort effects."},{"text":"An observer effect.","correct":false,"explanation":"An observer effect occurs when being watched changes participants’ behaviour. Historical or cultural differences between the age groups in cross-sectional research instead create a cohort effect."}]},{"id":"7bba2fe9-435a-4981-9b91-7c1c4eea19c9","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"After observing an aggressive adult model in Bandura et al. (1961), what did children show more of?","back":"Imitative aggression.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Imitative aggression.","correct":true,"explanation":"Children reproduced aggressive acts performed by the adult model, demonstrating imitative aggression and supporting the claim that behaviour can be acquired through observation."},{"text":"Cooperative behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"Cooperative play is prosocial rather than aggressive and was not the key effect of watching the model. The children showed increased imitative aggression by copying observed acts."},{"text":"Fearful avoidance.","correct":false,"explanation":"Fearful avoidance would suggest that the model’s aggression discouraged contact with the toys. Instead, children copied the model and displayed more imitative aggression."},{"text":"Passive obedience.","correct":false,"explanation":"Passive obedience implies compliance without reproducing the model’s behaviour. Bandura et al. found increased imitative aggression, as children repeated aggressive actions they had observed."}]},{"id":"031604f7-8d03-433a-b774-6bfbfb3a207b","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Bandura et al. supports [ ] because children learned by [ ] models.","back":"Bandura et al. supports social learning theory because children learned by observing and imitating models.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Bandura et al. supports social learning theory because children learned by observing and imitating models.","correct":true,"explanation":"Social learning theory proposes that behaviour can be acquired by observing and imitating models. The children’s reproduction of the adult’s aggressive actions supports this explanation."},{"text":"Bandura et al. supports operant conditioning because children learned by observing and imitating models.","correct":false,"explanation":"Observing and imitating a model is evidence for social learning theory, not operant conditioning. Operant conditioning requires behaviour to be shaped by its rewarding or punishing consequences."},{"text":"Bandura et al. supports social learning theory because children learned by trial and error models.","correct":false,"explanation":"The children did not need to discover aggressive responses through trial and error. Social learning theory is supported because they learned by observing and imitating models."},{"text":"Bandura et al. supports classical conditioning because children learned by associating stimuli models.","correct":false,"explanation":"Classical conditioning explains learning through associations between stimuli, not copying another person. Bandura et al. supports social learning theory because children learned by observing and imitating models."}]},{"id":"0d4dc12b-59d7-4a91-9b24-5e3214201b79","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"In Chaney et al. (2004), what did the Funhaler aim to improve?","back":"Children's adherence to asthma medication.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Children's adherence to asthma medication.","correct":true,"explanation":"The Funhaler added entertaining features and rewards to make inhaler use more engaging, aiming to increase children’s adherence to their prescribed asthma medication."},{"text":"Children's lung capacity during exercise.","correct":false,"explanation":"The Funhaler was not designed as exercise training and therefore did not primarily target lung capacity. Its purpose was to improve children’s adherence to asthma medication."},{"text":"Children's understanding of asthma triggers.","correct":false,"explanation":"Teaching children about environmental triggers was not the Funhaler’s central purpose. Its toys and incentives were intended to improve children’s adherence to asthma medication."},{"text":"Children's accuracy of asthma diagnosis.","correct":false,"explanation":"Asthma diagnosis requires clinical assessment rather than an incentivised inhaler attachment. The Funhaler was designed to improve children’s adherence to asthma medication."}]},{"id":"3238d441-4c7e-4200-985d-c969da124043","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What learning principle explains the Funhaler's toys and incentives?","back":"Operant conditioning - rewards make medication-taking more likely.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Operant conditioning - rewards make medication-taking more likely.","correct":true,"explanation":"The Funhaler provides rewarding stimulation after appropriate inhaler use. This applies operant conditioning because positive consequences increase the likelihood that medication-taking will be repeated."},{"text":"Classical conditioning - associations make medication-taking more likely.","correct":false,"explanation":"Classical conditioning concerns associations between stimuli and reflexive responses, not behaviour strengthened by rewards. The Funhaler applies operant conditioning to increase medication-taking."},{"text":"Observational learning - models make medication-taking more likely.","correct":false,"explanation":"Observational learning requires a model whose behaviour is watched and copied. The Funhaler instead uses rewards, so operant conditioning makes medication-taking more likely."},{"text":"Negative reinforcement - removing discomfort makes medication-taking more likely.","correct":false,"explanation":"Negative reinforcement strengthens behaviour by removing an unpleasant stimulus, whereas the Funhaler adds enjoyable rewards. It therefore uses operant conditioning through positive reinforcement."}]},{"id":"bad25eeb-1dc4-4c9f-baea-904e4337eb5c","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"In Kohlberg's theory, how does moral reasoning change with development?","back":"It moves from punishment/reward to laws, social order and abstract principles.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It moves from punishment/reward to laws, social order and abstract principles.","correct":true,"explanation":"Kohlberg proposed a progression from self-interested reasoning based on punishment and reward to conventional concern with laws and order, followed by abstract moral principles."},{"text":"It moves from abstract principles to laws, social order and punishment/reward.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses Kohlberg’s developmental sequence. Moral reasoning begins with punishment and reward, then progresses towards laws, social order and potentially abstract principles."},{"text":"It moves from punishment/reward to attachment, imitation and identification.","correct":false,"explanation":"Attachment, imitation and identification belong to other explanations of social and moral development. Kohlberg described movement from punishment/reward towards laws, social order and abstract principles."},{"text":"It remains focused on punishment/reward throughout childhood and adulthood.","correct":false,"explanation":"Kohlberg did not propose that moral reasoning remains fixed at the pre-conventional level. It can progress from punishment/reward to conventional rules and abstract principles."}]},{"id":"52a7012c-c17b-47e2-b41e-2c65daf7f119","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Lee et al. shows children's moral understanding develops within a [ ], not just through [ ].","back":"Lee et al. shows children's moral understanding develops within a cultural context, not just through universal stages.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Lee et al. shows children's moral understanding develops within a cultural context, not just through universal stages.","correct":true,"explanation":"Lee et al. found that judgements about truth-telling differed between Chinese and Canadian children, showing that culture shapes moral understanding beyond a universal stage sequence."},{"text":"Lee et al. shows children's moral understanding develops within a biological context, not just through universal stages.","correct":false,"explanation":"The study compared culturally influenced moral judgements rather than biological development. It therefore supports a cultural context for morality, rather than explaining differences through biology alone."},{"text":"Lee et al. shows children's moral understanding develops within a cultural context, not just through social reinforcement.","correct":false,"explanation":"Social reinforcement may influence behaviour, but the study specifically challenges the idea that morality develops only through universal stages by demonstrating culturally different evaluations of truth-telling."},{"text":"Lee et al. shows children's moral understanding develops within a universal context, not just through cultural stages.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the study’s conclusion. Chinese and Canadian children evaluated truth-telling differently, indicating that moral understanding develops within a cultural context rather than solely through universal stages."}]},{"id":"9f53f514-e167-461f-8bab-e34da731180d","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What cultural issue in truth-telling did Lee et al. especially highlight?","back":"Modesty about good deeds.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Modesty about good deeds.","correct":true,"explanation":"Lee et al. highlighted that Chinese children increasingly approved of denying a good deed because modesty and self-effacement are particularly valued within Chinese culture."},{"text":"Honesty about bad deeds.","correct":false,"explanation":"Children’s evaluations of admitting bad deeds were examined, but the key cultural difference concerned modesty about good deeds. Chinese children were more likely to approve self-effacing lies."},{"text":"Pride about good deeds.","correct":false,"explanation":"Pride is the opposite of the cultural value highlighted. Lee et al. focused on modesty about good deeds, which made denying prosocial actions more acceptable to Chinese children."},{"text":"Remorse about bad deeds.","correct":false,"explanation":"Remorse may affect judgements about wrongdoing, but Lee et al.’s distinctive cultural finding concerned modesty about good deeds and approval of denying one’s own prosocial behaviour."}]},{"id":"bb49c7cb-0ad1-488b-8a51-35c234c537a5","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why can Bandura et al. (1961) be considered scientific?","back":"It used controlled, standardised observation of aggression.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It used controlled, standardised observation of aggression.","correct":true,"explanation":"The laboratory setting, standardised procedure and systematic observation made conditions consistent and measurable, allowing Bandura et al. to investigate imitation of aggression scientifically."},{"text":"It used unstructured, naturalistic observation of aggression.","correct":false,"explanation":"Bandura et al. did not simply observe children behaving naturally. Its scientific strength came from controlled, standardised observation, which allowed systematic comparison between experimental conditions."},{"text":"It used open-ended, retrospective interviews about aggression.","correct":false,"explanation":"The researchers measured children’s observed behaviour rather than relying on retrospective self-reports. Controlled, standardised observation provided more objective and comparable evidence of imitated aggression."},{"text":"It used uncontrolled, participant observation of aggression.","correct":false,"explanation":"The researchers did not participate in an uncontrolled social setting. They used controlled, standardised observation in a laboratory, enabling consistent measurement of aggressive acts."}]},{"id":"a4ddf47a-d241-4283-a718-3d7085798f72","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What ethical concern is raised by Bandura et al. (1961)?","back":"Children were exposed to aggressive models.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Children were exposed to aggressive models.","correct":true,"explanation":"Children watched adults behaving aggressively and could subsequently imitate that behaviour. This created a risk of psychological harm or lasting increases in aggression."},{"text":"Children were exposed to deceptive questionnaires.","correct":false,"explanation":"Questionnaires were not the central ethical concern in this experiment. The concern was that children observed aggressive adult models and might learn or imitate harmful behaviour."},{"text":"Children were exposed to dangerous medication.","correct":false,"explanation":"No medication was administered in Bandura et al.’s experiment. The relevant ethical concern was exposing young children to aggressive models who demonstrated physically and verbally aggressive behaviour."},{"text":"Children were exposed to private information.","correct":false,"explanation":"A breach of confidentiality was not the main issue. The study risked psychological harm because children were deliberately shown aggressive models whose behaviour they might imitate."}]},{"id":"3f592a9a-ab0e-474d-a171-7743f5b565ef","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Validity asks whether a study measures [ ]; reliability asks whether it is [ ].","back":"Validity asks whether a study measures what it claims to measure; reliability asks whether it is consistent and replicable.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Validity asks whether a study measures what it claims to measure; reliability asks whether it is consistent and replicable.","correct":true,"explanation":"Validity concerns whether the intended construct is genuinely measured, whereas reliability concerns whether the method produces consistent results and can be replicated successfully."},{"text":"Validity asks whether a study measures consistent and replicable results; reliability asks whether it is what it claims to measure.","correct":false,"explanation":"This swaps the two concepts. Validity concerns measuring what the study claims to measure, while reliability concerns consistency and the ability to replicate findings."},{"text":"Validity asks whether a study measures what participants expect; reliability asks whether it is consistent and replicable.","correct":false,"explanation":"Participant expectations can create demand characteristics, but they do not define validity. Validity asks whether the intended construct is measured; reliability concerns consistency and replication."},{"text":"Validity asks whether a study measures what it claims to measure; reliability asks whether it is ethical and confidential.","correct":false,"explanation":"Ethics and confidentiality concern participant protection, not reliability. Reliability asks whether findings or measurements are consistent and replicable, while validity concerns measuring the intended construct."}]},{"id":"cfe03162-78a7-4409-8036-1404ee2729b8","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why might hitting a Bobo doll have low ecological validity?","back":"It may not represent real-life aggression.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It may not represent real-life aggression.","correct":true,"explanation":"Hitting an inflatable Bobo doll in a laboratory is artificial and may not reflect how aggression occurs in everyday relationships, so ecological validity may be low."},{"text":"It may not represent childhood intelligence.","correct":false,"explanation":"The task was intended to measure imitated aggression, not intelligence. Its ecological validity is questioned because attacking a Bobo doll may not represent real-life aggression."},{"text":"It may not represent adult conformity.","correct":false,"explanation":"Bandura et al. studied children’s imitation of aggressive models, not adult conformity. The ecological-validity issue is whether doll-hitting accurately represents aggression in ordinary life."},{"text":"It may not represent moral reasoning.","correct":false,"explanation":"Moral reasoning was not the behaviour being measured. The concern is that hitting a Bobo doll is an artificial task that may not represent real-life aggression."}]},{"id":"95abf9b6-01c1-4da0-ab53-74f5d78c8a68","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What sampling bias is linked to Kohlberg's original research?","back":"Heavy focus on male participants.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Heavy focus on male participants.","correct":true,"explanation":"Kohlberg’s original longitudinal sample consisted entirely of boys, so his stage theory may reflect male moral development more strongly than female moral development."},{"text":"Heavy focus on female participants.","correct":false,"explanation":"The original longitudinal research focused on boys rather than girls. This male-biased sample limits generalisation and may have shaped Kohlberg’s account of moral development."},{"text":"Heavy focus on elderly participants.","correct":false,"explanation":"The central sampling criticism is not an overrepresentation of older adults. Kohlberg’s original research heavily focused on male participants, particularly boys followed over time."},{"text":"Heavy focus on clinical participants.","correct":false,"explanation":"Kohlberg’s sample was not mainly drawn from a clinical population. The recognised sampling bias is its heavy focus on males, limiting generalisation across genders."}]},{"id":"ce8f8c81-f9c0-474a-9b24-a5df97c03673","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What ethnocentric limitation is linked to Kohlberg's original research?","back":"Heavy focus on Western moral values.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Heavy focus on Western moral values.","correct":true,"explanation":"Kohlberg emphasised justice, rights and individual reasoning, values prominent in Western societies. This may make his supposedly universal stages less applicable across cultures."},{"text":"Heavy focus on Eastern moral values.","correct":false,"explanation":"Kohlberg’s framework is criticised for privileging Western ideas such as individual rights and justice, rather than being based mainly on Eastern collectivist moral values."},{"text":"Heavy focus on religious moral values.","correct":false,"explanation":"Although religion can influence moral judgement, the main ethnocentric criticism is Kohlberg’s emphasis on Western moral values and limited recognition of culturally different moral priorities."},{"text":"Heavy focus on universal moral values.","correct":false,"explanation":"Kohlberg claimed universal stages, but the criticism is that his theory actually reflects Western moral values. Treating these culturally specific priorities as universal creates ethnocentric bias."}]}]}],"examCountdown":{"examDate":"2027-05-10","paperLabel":"Paper 1"},"heading":"Developmental","title":"Developmental Flashcards","topbar":{"backHref":"/as-level/psychology/ocr/flashcards"},"topicSidebar":"$L36"}]}],"topicId":"8f2c4187-58b0-5900-8cb2-87f45c1c5ca6","walled":"$L37"}],"$L38","$L39"]