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cell reactions, but chromosomes are kept in the nucleus. Confusing the cell’s contents with its control centre leads to this choice."},{"text":"cell membrane","correct":false,"explanation":"The cell membrane controls movement of substances into and out of the cell, whereas chromosomes are stored inside the nucleus."},{"text":"mitochondrion","correct":false,"explanation":"Mitochondria contain some genetic material, but the chromosomes in plant and animal cells are found in the nucleus, not in mitochondria."}]},{"id":"55343b92-e4e7-436b-9346-3f42e13d9305","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Chromosomes are long molecules of [ ] coiled to fit inside the nucleus.","back":"Chromosomes are long molecules of DNA coiled to fit inside the nucleus.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"DNA","correct":true,"explanation":"Chromosomes consist of long DNA molecules coiled tightly so they can fit inside the nucleus and carry genetic information."},{"text":"protein","correct":false,"explanation":"Proteins are made using genetic instructions, but DNA is the molecule that forms chromosomes. Confusing the material with its product causes this error."},{"text":"RNA","correct":false,"explanation":"RNA helps use genetic information in cells, but chromosomes are made from DNA. RNA is generally shorter and not the chromosome material."},{"text":"starch","correct":false,"explanation":"Starch is a storage carbohydrate in plants, not genetic material. Chromosomes contain coiled DNA molecules, which carry inherited information."}]},{"id":"ca34340f-fd6e-48b9-addf-f17471c8f89d","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"The [ ] is the entire DNA of an organism; a [ ] is one useful section of DNA.","back":"The genome is the entire DNA of an organism; a gene is one useful section of DNA.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The genome is the entire DNA of an organism; a gene is one useful section of DNA.","correct":true,"explanation":"A genome includes all the DNA of an organism, while a gene is a specific section that contains instructions for a useful product."},{"text":"The gene is the entire DNA of an organism; a genome is one useful section of DNA.","correct":false,"explanation":"These terms have been reversed. The genome means all an organism’s DNA, whereas a gene is one useful section within that genome."},{"text":"The chromosome is the entire DNA of an organism; a allele is one useful section of DNA.","correct":false,"explanation":"A chromosome is one organised DNA structure, not all the DNA in an organism, and an allele is a version of a gene rather than any useful section."},{"text":"The gene is the entire DNA of an organism; a allele is one useful section of DNA.","correct":false,"explanation":"A gene is a section of DNA, so it cannot mean the organism’s entire DNA. An allele is an alternative version of a gene, not the general term for a useful section."}]},{"id":"923f0c3e-fd8b-4e0f-b1b0-d14158822120","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"A gene codes for what cell product?","back":"A specific protein.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A specific protein.","correct":true,"explanation":"A gene contains the instructions for making a specific protein, although the protein’s exact function depends on its structure and role in the cell."},{"text":"A specific carbohydrate.","correct":false,"explanation":"Genes do not directly code for carbohydrates. They code for specific proteins, which may later help produce or modify carbohydrates in cells."},{"text":"A specific lipid.","correct":false,"explanation":"Lipids are not the direct products coded for by genes. The genetic code specifies proteins, including enzymes involved in lipid metabolism."},{"text":"A specific mineral ion.","correct":false,"explanation":"Mineral ions are inorganic substances absorbed or transported by cells, not products directly coded for by genes. Genes code for specific proteins."}]},{"id":"9874f22d-fe1d-4e34-aff3-0ac84cd4396c","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"How can proteins control cell processes?","back":"Some proteins act as enzymes.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Some proteins act as enzymes.","correct":true,"explanation":"Enzymes are proteins that control cell processes by catalysing specific chemical reactions, increasing their rate without being used up."},{"text":"Some proteins act as hormones.","correct":false,"explanation":"Some hormones are proteins, but the key way proteins control cell processes is by acting as enzymes that catalyse chemical reactions."},{"text":"Some proteins act as antibodies.","correct":false,"explanation":"Antibodies are proteins involved in immune defence, but enzymes control many cell processes by speeding up specific chemical reactions."},{"text":"Some proteins act as chromosomes.","correct":false,"explanation":"Chromosomes are structures made mainly from DNA and associated proteins, not protein products that control reactions. Enzymes perform this control role."}]},{"id":"255e7d0f-2540-4058-a566-70a2c34c8fc2","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"A DNA molecule has two strands coiled into a [ ].","back":"A DNA molecule has two strands coiled into a double helix.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"double helix","correct":true,"explanation":"DNA has two complementary strands twisted around each other, forming the characteristic shape called a double helix."},{"text":"single helix","correct":false,"explanation":"DNA contains two strands, so its structure is a double helix. A single-stranded structure is associated more commonly with RNA."},{"text":"triple helix","correct":false,"explanation":"The DNA molecule is made from two strands, not three. These two strands twist together to form a double helix."},{"text":"circular loop","correct":false,"explanation":"Some bacterial DNA is circular, but the standard structure of a DNA molecule in plant and animal cells is two strands forming a double helix."}]},{"id":"e4e3a562-abd0-4336-8c42-e4c2a82b75ad","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"In DNA, adenine pairs with [ ] and cytosine pairs with [ ].","back":"In DNA, adenine pairs with thymine and cytosine pairs with guanine.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"In DNA, adenine pairs with thymine and cytosine pairs with guanine.","correct":true,"explanation":"Complementary base pairing in DNA is specific: adenine bonds with thymine, while cytosine bonds with guanine."},{"text":"In DNA, adenine pairs with guanine and cytosine pairs with thymine.","correct":false,"explanation":"The base pairs have been swapped. Adenine pairs with thymine, and cytosine pairs with guanine because their shapes and hydrogen bonding match."},{"text":"In DNA, adenine pairs with cytosine and cytosine pairs with adenine.","correct":false,"explanation":"Pairing the two bases in this way ignores the complementary pairing rules. Adenine matches thymine, whereas cytosine matches guanine."},{"text":"In DNA, adenine pairs with uracil and cytosine pairs with guanine.","correct":false,"explanation":"Uracil replaces thymine in RNA, not DNA. In DNA, adenine pairs with thymine and cytosine pairs with guanine."}]},{"id":"fcb963b9-0e62-43ec-bd3b-ecaed2e0985f","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"RNA is [ ] and contains [ ] instead of thymine.","back":"RNA is single stranded and contains uracil instead of thymine.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"RNA is single stranded and contains uracil instead of thymine.","correct":true,"explanation":"RNA usually consists of a single strand and uses uracil as a base in place of thymine, unlike double-stranded DNA."},{"text":"RNA is double stranded and contains uracil instead of thymine.","correct":false,"explanation":"RNA normally has one strand, although it still contains uracil. The double-stranded structure and thymine are characteristic of DNA."},{"text":"RNA is single stranded and contains thymine instead of uracil.","correct":false,"explanation":"RNA is usually single stranded, but its distinctive base is uracil. Thymine is found in DNA rather than replacing uracil in RNA."},{"text":"RNA is double stranded and contains thymine instead of uracil.","correct":false,"explanation":"Both features describe DNA rather than RNA. RNA is usually single stranded and contains uracil instead of thymine."}]},{"id":"eaf80156-e333-4b37-816d-4fd44bfee445","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What does transcription copy a gene into?","back":"mRNA.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"mRNA.","correct":true,"explanation":"Transcription uses a DNA gene as a template to make a complementary messenger RNA molecule, which carries the genetic code from the nucleus to a ribosome."},{"text":"DNA.","correct":false,"explanation":"DNA is the template that is copied during transcription, not its product. Transcription produces complementary mRNA, which carries the gene’s code to a ribosome."},{"text":"tRNA.","correct":false,"explanation":"tRNA carries specific amino acids and uses its anticodon during translation. The molecule made by copying a gene in transcription is mRNA, not tRNA."},{"text":"A protein.","correct":false,"explanation":"Proteins are assembled during translation at ribosomes, after the gene has been transcribed. Transcription first produces mRNA containing the copied genetic code."}]},{"id":"081ae9dd-9b45-4ab2-81a7-46a59d68d53d","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Where is the mRNA code used to build a protein?","back":"At a ribosome.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"At a ribosome.","correct":true,"explanation":"A ribosome binds to the mRNA and reads its codons during translation, joining amino acids in the specified sequence to build a protein."},{"text":"At the nucleus.","correct":false,"explanation":"The nucleus contains the DNA and is where transcription occurs, but protein assembly takes place at a ribosome, which reads the mRNA code."},{"text":"At a mitochondrion.","correct":false,"explanation":"Mitochondria are mainly associated with aerobic respiration, although they contain some genetic material. The mRNA code for protein building is read at a ribosome."},{"text":"At the Golgi apparatus.","correct":false,"explanation":"The Golgi apparatus modifies and transports some proteins after they are made. It does not read mRNA; protein synthesis occurs at a ribosome."}]},{"id":"254b9517-0221-48dc-821a-516d14297f97","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What does a tRNA anticodon pair with?","back":"An mRNA codon.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"An mRNA codon.","correct":true,"explanation":"During translation, a tRNA anticodon forms complementary base pairs with an mRNA codon, ensuring that the correct amino acid is added to the growing protein."},{"text":"A tRNA codon.","correct":false,"explanation":"tRNA contains an anticodon rather than a codon. The anticodon pairs with a complementary sequence on an mRNA molecule, specifically an mRNA codon."},{"text":"An mRNA anticodon.","correct":false,"explanation":"The anticodon is found on tRNA, whereas mRNA carries codons. Complementary base pairing therefore occurs between the tRNA anticodon and an mRNA codon."},{"text":"A DNA codon.","correct":false,"explanation":"DNA provides the original genetic template, but tRNA anticodons pair with mRNA during translation. The direct pairing partner is an mRNA codon."}]},{"id":"c6c95b85-31e8-4a2d-9fc9-c7f639e27086","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"When is a recessive allele expressed in the phenotype?","back":"Only when no dominant allele is present.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Only when no dominant allele is present.","correct":true,"explanation":"A recessive allele is masked when a dominant allele is present. It affects the phenotype only when both alleles are recessive, so no dominant allele is present."},{"text":"Only when two dominant alleles are present.","correct":false,"explanation":"Two dominant alleles produce the dominant phenotype rather than the recessive one. A recessive phenotype appears only when no dominant allele is present."},{"text":"Whenever one recessive allele is present.","correct":false,"explanation":"A single recessive allele is usually hidden in a heterozygote by the dominant allele. The recessive phenotype requires no dominant allele to be present."},{"text":"Only in a heterozygote.","correct":false,"explanation":"A heterozygote has one dominant and one recessive allele, so the dominant allele is expressed. The recessive phenotype appears when no dominant allele is present."}]},{"id":"f067fcf7-648d-42c3-8da2-c5823440f1e3","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What happens in a heterozygote if two alleles are codominant?","back":"Both alleles are expressed in the phenotype.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Both alleles are expressed in the phenotype.","correct":true,"explanation":"With codominance, neither allele masks the other in a heterozygote. Both alleles are expressed, producing a phenotype showing the effects of each allele."},{"text":"Only the dominant allele is expressed in the phenotype.","correct":false,"explanation":"This describes complete dominance, where one allele masks the other. In codominance, both alleles are expressed in the phenotype."},{"text":"Only the recessive allele is expressed in the phenotype.","correct":false,"explanation":"A recessive allele is expressed alone only when no dominant allele is present. Codominance is different: both alleles are expressed in the phenotype."},{"text":"Neither allele is expressed in the phenotype.","correct":false,"explanation":"Codominant alleles are both active in the heterozygote rather than being hidden. Therefore, both alleles are expressed in the phenotype."}]},{"id":"2b280407-770c-4cab-b52d-8edbf2dd92ac","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why does dominant not mean common?","back":"Dominant only describes expression in a heterozygote.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Dominant only describes expression in a heterozygote.","correct":true,"explanation":"Dominance refers to which allele affects the phenotype when paired with a different allele. It does not indicate how frequently the allele occurs in a population."},{"text":"Dominant means the allele is common in a population.","correct":false,"explanation":"Frequency and dominance are separate ideas: an allele can be dominant but rare. Dominant describes expression in a heterozygote, not population frequency."},{"text":"Dominant means the allele is inherited by most offspring.","correct":false,"explanation":"Inheritance probability depends on the parental genotypes, not whether an allele is dominant. Dominance only describes expression in a heterozygote."},{"text":"Dominant means the allele is always advantageous.","correct":false,"explanation":"A dominant allele is not necessarily beneficial; it may have a neutral or harmful effect. Dominance only describes its expression in a heterozygote."}]},{"id":"0a136fce-14fb-45b0-aa90-8bb2a9b13718","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why can human height not be treated as a single-gene characteristic?","back":"It is polygenic and affected by the environment.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It is polygenic and affected by the environment.","correct":true,"explanation":"Human height is influenced by alleles at many genes, making it polygenic. Environmental factors such as nutrition also affect the final height reached."},{"text":"It is monogenic and unaffected by the environment.","correct":false,"explanation":"Height is not controlled by one gene alone, and environmental factors such as nutrition influence it. It is polygenic and environmentally affected."},{"text":"It is polygenic and unaffected by the environment.","correct":false,"explanation":"Although many genes contribute to height, genes are not the only influence. Environmental conditions also affect growth, so height is polygenic and environmentally affected."},{"text":"It is monogenic and affected by the environment.","correct":false,"explanation":"Environmental effects do contribute to height, but that does not make height a single-gene characteristic. Height is controlled by many genes, so it is polygenic."}]},{"id":"f0cd1bc6-743f-4fad-b830-eca02284ccb3","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"In a Pp × Pp cross, with P dominant, what is the probability of the recessive phenotype?","back":"1 in 4, or 25%.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"1 in 4, or 25%.","correct":true,"explanation":"The cross produces PP, Pp, Pp and pp in equal proportions. Only pp gives the recessive phenotype, so one of four offspring, or 25%, is expected."},{"text":"1 in 2, or 50%.","correct":false,"explanation":"Half the offspring are expected to be heterozygous Pp, but they show the dominant phenotype. Only pp is recessive, giving 1 in 4, or 25%."},{"text":"3 in 4, or 75%.","correct":false,"explanation":"Three out of four offspring have at least one dominant P allele and show the dominant phenotype. The recessive pp genotype occurs in 1 in 4, or 25%."},{"text":"1 in 3, or 33%.","correct":false,"explanation":"A one-in-three ratio can arise when considering only certain surviving or selected genotypes, not all offspring here. The Punnett square gives pp in 1 in 4, or 25%."}]},{"id":"96e1d7ab-6a81-49c3-9576-0678dc507671","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why can two heterozygous parents produce a recessive offspring?","back":"Each parent can pass on the recessive allele.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Each parent can pass on the recessive allele.","correct":true,"explanation":"A heterozygous parent has one dominant and one recessive allele. If both parents contribute their recessive allele, the offspring inherits two recessive alleles and expresses the recessive characteristic."},{"text":"Each parent can pass on the dominant allele.","correct":false,"explanation":"Passing on dominant alleles would give the offspring at least one dominant allele, so it would not show the recessive characteristic. Both parents must pass on the recessive allele."},{"text":"One parent can pass on both recessive alleles.","correct":false,"explanation":"A recessive offspring must receive one recessive allele from each parent, not two alleles from one parent. Each heterozygous parent can contribute its recessive allele."},{"text":"Each parent always passes on the same allele.","correct":false,"explanation":"Heterozygous parents have one dominant and one recessive allele, so they do not always pass on the same allele. A recessive offspring results when both pass on the recessive allele."}]},{"id":"fd37780a-c29b-4941-a83c-f582137c39e7","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why does 25% probability not guarantee exactly one affected child in four?","back":"Each fertilisation is independent.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Each fertilisation is independent.","correct":true,"explanation":"The allele inherited in one fertilisation does not affect the alleles inherited in another. Therefore, every child has the same 25% probability regardless of previous outcomes."},{"text":"Each fertilisation is dependent.","correct":false,"explanation":"Fertilisations are not dependent on earlier outcomes, so previous children do not alter the next child’s probability. Each fertilisation is independent and retains the same 25% probability."},{"text":"The probability changes after each birth.","correct":false,"explanation":"The probability remains 25% for every fertilisation when the parents’ genotypes are unchanged. Random inheritance means the actual number affected can differ from one in four."},{"text":"Four children inherit every possible genotype.","correct":false,"explanation":"A Punnett square shows possible outcomes and their probabilities, not a sequence that four children must follow. Each independent fertilisation can produce any permitted genotype."}]},{"id":"46097607-09de-48ef-903c-e6566ae00bd0","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Unaffected parents have a child with a recessive condition. What must the parents be?","back":"Both are carriers, genotype Aa.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Both are carriers, genotype Aa.","correct":true,"explanation":"Unaffected parents must each possess a dominant allele, but producing an affected recessive child means each also supplied a recessive allele. Therefore, both parents have genotype Aa."},{"text":"Both are homozygous dominant, genotype AA.","correct":false,"explanation":"Parents with genotype AA have no recessive allele to pass on, so they cannot produce an aa child. Both unaffected parents must be carriers with genotype Aa."},{"text":"One is a carrier, the other is AA.","correct":false,"explanation":"A parent with genotype AA cannot contribute the recessive allele needed for an affected aa child. Both parents must carry one recessive allele and have genotype Aa."},{"text":"Both are affected, genotype aa.","correct":false,"explanation":"Individuals with genotype aa express the recessive condition, contradicting the statement that both parents are unaffected. The parents must instead be unaffected carriers with genotype Aa."}]},{"id":"6063a5b8-7d0f-4c48-934e-e6e50dd4d5b1","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Which gamete determines biological sex in humans?","back":"The sperm, because it carries X or Y.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The sperm, because it carries X or Y.","correct":true,"explanation":"Human eggs always contain an X chromosome, whereas sperm contain either X or Y. An X-bearing sperm produces XX and a Y-bearing sperm produces XY."},{"text":"The egg, because it carries X or Y.","correct":false,"explanation":"A human egg always carries an X chromosome, not either X or Y. The sperm determines biological sex because it can contribute an X or a Y chromosome."},{"text":"The sperm, because it always carries Y.","correct":false,"explanation":"Sperm do determine biological sex, but they do not all carry Y chromosomes. Approximately half carry X and half carry Y, producing XX or XY after fertilisation."},{"text":"The egg, because it always carries X.","correct":false,"explanation":"The egg contributes an X chromosome in every fertilisation, so it does not determine whether the embryo is XX or XY. The X-bearing or Y-bearing sperm determines this."}]},{"id":"81f32c8d-69af-42b0-91ff-2a45e898a825","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"In humans, the diploid chromosome number is [ ] and the haploid number is [ ].","back":"In humans, the diploid chromosome number is 46 and the haploid number is 23.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"In humans, the diploid chromosome number is 46 and the haploid number is 23.","correct":true,"explanation":"Human diploid cells contain 23 homologous pairs, giving 46 chromosomes in total. Haploid gametes contain one chromosome from each pair, giving 23 chromosomes."},{"text":"In humans, the diploid chromosome number is 23 and the haploid number is 46.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the two chromosome numbers. Human body cells are diploid with 46 chromosomes, while gametes are haploid with 23 chromosomes."},{"text":"In humans, the diploid chromosome number is 44 and the haploid number is 22.","correct":false,"explanation":"This incorrectly treats humans as having 22 chromosome pairs, overlooking the sex-chromosome pair. Humans have 46 chromosomes in diploid cells and 23 in haploid gametes."},{"text":"In humans, the diploid chromosome number is 48 and the haploid number is 24.","correct":false,"explanation":"This adds an extra chromosome pair to the human chromosome complement. Humans normally have 23 pairs, so the diploid number is 46 and the haploid number is 23."}]},{"id":"ef9026d4-10fc-4e01-abb2-d8cf97f7454e","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What does mitosis produce?","back":"Two cells with identical sets of chromosomes.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Two cells with identical sets of chromosomes.","correct":true,"explanation":"Mitosis involves one cell division after chromosome replication, producing two daughter cells. Each daughter cell receives an identical set of chromosomes and retains the parent cell’s chromosome number."},{"text":"Four cells with different sets of chromosomes.","correct":false,"explanation":"Four genetically different cells are produced by meiosis, not mitosis. Mitosis produces two daughter cells with chromosome sets identical to each other and to the parent cell."},{"text":"Two cells with half the number of chromosomes.","correct":false,"explanation":"Halving the chromosome number is a feature of meiosis. Mitosis maintains chromosome number and produces two cells with identical sets of chromosomes."},{"text":"One cell with twice the number of chromosomes.","correct":false,"explanation":"Mitosis completes one nuclear division followed by cell division, so it normally produces two daughter cells rather than one. Their sets of chromosomes are identical."}]},{"id":"9d2b7207-7b14-44e2-9968-dcfbb5f33d90","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What does meiosis produce?","back":"Four genetically different haploid gametes.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Four genetically different haploid gametes.","correct":true,"explanation":"Meiosis consists of two divisions that reduce the chromosome number by half and usually create genetic variation through crossing over and independent assortment, producing four haploid gametes."},{"text":"Four genetically identical diploid gametes.","correct":false,"explanation":"Meiosis produces haploid, not diploid, cells and introduces genetic variation. Four genetically identical diploid cells are not the normal products of meiosis."},{"text":"Two genetically identical diploid body cells.","correct":false,"explanation":"Two identical diploid cells are characteristic products of mitosis, not meiosis. Meiosis normally produces four genetically different haploid gametes."},{"text":"Four genetically identical haploid gametes.","correct":false,"explanation":"Although meiotic products are haploid and four cells are formed, they are normally genetically different because chromosomes assort independently and crossing over can exchange genetic material."}]},{"id":"43c682e9-f088-4421-9433-51c1a71becf8","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How does fertilisation restore the human diploid number?","back":"23 + 23 = 46.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"23 + 23 = 46.","correct":true,"explanation":"A human sperm and egg each contain 23 chromosomes. Their nuclei fuse during fertilisation, combining the two haploid sets to restore the diploid number of 46."},{"text":"46 + 46 = 92.","correct":false,"explanation":"This incorrectly combines two diploid chromosome sets, producing an impossible total of 92. Fertilisation combines two haploid gametes, each containing 23 chromosomes, to make 46."},{"text":"23 + 46 = 69.","correct":false,"explanation":"This combines a haploid gamete with a diploid cell rather than two haploid gametes. Both human gametes contain 23 chromosomes, giving 46 after fertilisation."},{"text":"22 + 22 = 44.","correct":false,"explanation":"This overlooks the sex chromosome in each gamete by counting only the 22 autosomes. Each gamete contains 23 chromosomes, so fertilisation restores 46."}]},{"id":"dc3f993d-540e-4538-af7a-b40bdc0e7a16","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How does random fertilisation increase variation?","back":"Any sperm can fuse with any egg.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Any sperm can fuse with any egg.","correct":true,"explanation":"Sperm and eggs carry different combinations of alleles. The random pairing of any sperm with any egg produces genetically varied offspring."},{"text":"One sperm always fuses with the same type of egg.","correct":false,"explanation":"Fertilisation is not restricted to matching gamete types. Any sperm can fuse with any egg, creating many possible combinations of parental alleles."},{"text":"Any egg can develop without being fused with a sperm.","correct":false,"explanation":"Human eggs require fertilisation by sperm to form zygotes. Variation arises because any sperm can fuse with any egg, combining alleles randomly."},{"text":"All sperm and all eggs contain identical alleles.","correct":false,"explanation":"Meiosis produces genetically different gametes rather than identical ones. Random fertilisation then allows any sperm to fuse with any egg, increasing variation further."}]},{"id":"87884f5a-a82b-44fe-b677-5f7d6fd686e1","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"A mutation can be inherited if it occurs in a cell that forms [ ].","back":"A mutation can be inherited if it occurs in a cell that forms gametes.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"gametes","correct":true,"explanation":"Gametes transmit genetic material to offspring during fertilisation. A mutation in a cell that forms gametes can therefore enter a zygote and be inherited."},{"text":"body cells","correct":false,"explanation":"Mutations confined to body cells affect only the individual and are not normally transmitted to offspring. Inheritance requires the mutation to occur in a gamete-forming cell."},{"text":"skin cells","correct":false,"explanation":"Skin cells are somatic cells and do not contribute DNA to offspring. A mutation is heritable when it occurs in a cell that forms gametes."},{"text":"embryos","correct":false,"explanation":"An embryo develops after fertilisation rather than being the reproductive cell produced by a parent. The mutation must occur in a cell forming gametes to be inherited."}]},{"id":"ef61c304-2956-40b7-92dd-0d77bac3f40b","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What can a DNA change alter first during protein synthesis?","back":"The mRNA codons.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The mRNA codons.","correct":true,"explanation":"A changed DNA base sequence can produce different bases in the mRNA transcript. This changes its codons before potentially altering the amino acid sequence."},{"text":"The tRNA anticodons.","correct":false,"explanation":"A DNA mutation first changes the codons transcribed into mRNA. Existing tRNA anticodons do not change to match a mutation; different tRNA molecules may bind instead."},{"text":"The ribosome shape.","correct":false,"explanation":"The ribosome reads mRNA but its shape is not normally altered by a mutation in the gene being expressed. The mRNA codons change first."},{"text":"The protein amino acid sequence.","correct":false,"explanation":"The amino acid sequence may change later during translation. The first effect in protein synthesis is a change to the mRNA codons transcribed from DNA."}]},{"id":"b0c95d70-7b82-479f-af58-91599b5b4dd2","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How can an altered amino acid sequence affect phenotype?","back":"It can change protein shape or function.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It can change protein shape or function.","correct":true,"explanation":"A protein’s amino acid sequence determines how it folds. Altering that sequence can change its shape or function, potentially producing a different phenotype."},{"text":"It can change the DNA base sequence.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the causal sequence: a changed DNA base sequence can alter the amino acid sequence. The altered sequence may then change protein shape or function."},{"text":"It can increase the chromosome number.","correct":false,"explanation":"Chromosome number changes through errors in cell division, not because a protein has a different amino acid sequence. The sequence can alter protein shape or function."},{"text":"It can prevent genes being inherited.","correct":false,"explanation":"Inheritance depends on which alleles enter gametes, not directly on protein folding. An altered amino acid sequence can affect phenotype by changing protein shape or function."}]},{"id":"0c0016d3-1c39-4060-86de-b011ccbc211e","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"In natural selection, what happens to alleles for advantageous characteristics?","back":"They become more common over generations.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They become more common over generations.","correct":true,"explanation":"Individuals with advantageous alleles are more likely to survive and reproduce. They pass these alleles to more offspring, increasing their frequency over generations."},{"text":"They become less common over generations.","correct":false,"explanation":"Advantageous alleles usually improve reproductive success, so natural selection tends to increase rather than decrease their frequency. They become more common over generations."},{"text":"They remain equally common over generations.","correct":false,"explanation":"Allele frequencies do not remain fixed when one allele provides a reproductive advantage. Greater survival and reproduction make advantageous alleles more common over generations."},{"text":"They are eliminated immediately from populations.","correct":false,"explanation":"Natural selection changes allele frequencies gradually through differential reproduction; it does not remove advantageous alleles immediately. Such alleles tend to become more common over generations."}]},{"id":"e63f6975-fbe3-417d-8b96-6bfdba9c218f","cardType":"basic","points":3,"front":"Why can antibiotic treatment increase the proportion of resistant bacteria?","back":"

Susceptible bacteria are killed.
Resistant bacteria survive and reproduce.
Resistance genes are passed on.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Susceptible bacteria are killed.
Resistant bacteria survive and reproduce.
Resistance genes are passed on.

","correct":true,"explanation":"Antibiotics create a selection pressure by killing susceptible bacteria. Resistant bacteria survive, reproduce and pass resistance genes to descendants, increasing their proportion."},{"text":"

Susceptible bacteria adapt during treatment.
They become resistant when exposed.
The acquired resistance is passed on.

","correct":false,"explanation":"This reflects the misconception that individual bacteria deliberately adapt when exposed. Resistant variants usually exist beforehand; antibiotics kill susceptible bacteria, while resistant bacteria survive and reproduce."},{"text":"

Resistant bacteria are killed first.
Susceptible bacteria survive and reproduce.
Susceptibility genes are passed on.

","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses antibiotic selection. Susceptible bacteria are more likely to be killed, while resistant bacteria survive, reproduce and pass on resistance genes."},{"text":"

All bacteria are killed equally.
New resistant bacteria appear afterward.
Resistance genes are not inherited.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Antibiotics do not necessarily kill all bacteria equally, and resistance is heritable. Resistant survivors reproduce and pass resistance genes on, increasing their proportion."}]}]}],"examCountdown":{"examDate":"2027-05-11","paperLabel":"Paper 1"},"heading":"Inheritance","title":"Inheritance Flashcards","topbar":{"backHref":"/igcse/biology/edexcel/flashcards"},"topicSidebar":"$L36"}]}],"topicId":"4274e5b3-1867-56b9-97f3-d06c3b4a84c1","walled":"$L37"}],"$L38","$L39"]