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Bickman compared uniforms to see whether they influenced compliance with orders."},{"text":"To investigate the accuracy associated with different types of uniform.","correct":false,"explanation":"Accuracy was not the focus of the study. Bickman investigated whether the social power signalled by uniforms affected people’s obedience."},{"text":"To investigate the friendliness associated with different types of uniform.","correct":false,"explanation":"The study did not measure friendliness. Its aim was to investigate whether different uniforms conveyed social power and changed people’s likelihood of obeying."}]},{"id":"d4f2c0f8-7fd9-4c80-a7d8-80701d1d5e42","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What was Bickman’s hypothesis?","back":"Obedience would vary according to the uniform worn by the person giving the order.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Obedience would vary according to the uniform worn by the person giving the order.","correct":true,"explanation":"Bickman predicted that the person’s uniform would affect obedience, because uniforms can signal different levels of authority or social power."},{"text":"Obedience would vary according to the age of the person giving the order.","correct":false,"explanation":"Age was not the manipulated factor in this hypothesis. Bickman predicted that obedience would vary according to the uniform worn by the person giving the order."},{"text":"Obedience would vary according to the weather during the study.","correct":false,"explanation":"Weather was not Bickman’s proposed explanation for differences in obedience. The hypothesis concerned the uniform worn by the person giving the order."},{"text":"Obedience would remain constant despite the uniform worn by the person giving the order.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the hypothesis. Bickman expected obedience to vary according to the uniform, rather than remain unchanged across clothing conditions."}]},{"id":"d19f9e1e-cda0-4306-ac68-6896982650ab","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Bickman’s Experiment 1 was a [ ] because the researchers changed the uniform in an ordinary street setting.","back":"Bickman’s Experiment 1 was a field experiment because the researchers changed the uniform in an ordinary street setting.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"field experiment","correct":true,"explanation":"It was a field experiment because the researchers manipulated the uniform, the independent variable, in a real-world street setting."},{"text":"laboratory experiment","correct":false,"explanation":"A laboratory experiment takes place in a controlled research setting. Experiment 1 occurred in an ordinary street, so it was a field experiment."},{"text":"natural experiment","correct":false,"explanation":"A natural experiment uses a naturally occurring change that researchers do not control. Bickman deliberately changed the uniform, making this a field experiment."},{"text":"quasi-experiment","correct":false,"explanation":"A quasi-experiment involves a naturally existing participant characteristic or group difference. Here, the researchers manipulated clothing in a real-world setting: a field experiment."}]},{"id":"8466cb02-b7d9-4684-9209-4cca7800f2c4","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What was the independent variable in Experiment 1?","back":"The type of uniform worn by the person giving the order.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The type of uniform worn by the person giving the order.","correct":true,"explanation":"The researchers changed the type of uniform worn by the person giving the order, making uniform type the independent variable."},{"text":"Whether the pedestrian obeyed the order.","correct":false,"explanation":"Whether the pedestrian obeyed was measured as the outcome, so it was the dependent variable. The independent variable was the type of uniform."},{"text":"The number of orders given to each pedestrian.","correct":false,"explanation":"The number of orders was not the manipulated variable. Researchers varied the person’s uniform and measured whether pedestrians obeyed."},{"text":"The age of the pedestrian approached.","correct":false,"explanation":"Pedestrian age was only judged for describing the sample, not deliberately changed between conditions. The manipulated independent variable was uniform type."}]},{"id":"13674d80-22aa-49e4-a034-0aeea2722b9b","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What was the dependent variable in Experiment 1?","back":"Whether the pedestrian obeyed the order.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Whether the pedestrian obeyed the order.","correct":true,"explanation":"The dependent variable was the observed outcome: whether each pedestrian complied with the order given by the person wearing the uniform."},{"text":"The type of uniform worn by the person giving the order.","correct":false,"explanation":"Uniform type was deliberately changed, so it was the independent variable. The dependent variable was whether the pedestrian obeyed."},{"text":"Whether the confederate changed the order.","correct":false,"explanation":"Confederates behaved identically and followed the same procedure. The measured outcome was pedestrian obedience, not changes to the order."},{"text":"The number of confederates used in each condition.","correct":false,"explanation":"The number of confederates was controlled rather than measured as the outcome. The dependent variable was whether pedestrians obeyed the order."}]},{"id":"9ba44c3a-5be3-43c0-be32-058e4f67ed54","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"An independent-measures design meant each pedestrian encountered [ ].","back":"An independent-measures design meant each pedestrian encountered one uniform only.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"one uniform only","correct":true,"explanation":"With an independent-measures design, each pedestrian took part in only one condition, so each encountered one uniform only."},{"text":"all three uniforms","correct":false,"explanation":"Encountering all three uniforms would involve repeated measures. Independent measures means different pedestrians encountered different conditions, with one uniform only."},{"text":"two uniforms in sequence","correct":false,"explanation":"Two uniforms in sequence would still expose a participant to multiple conditions. In an independent-measures design, each pedestrian encountered one uniform only."},{"text":"one order from each uniform","correct":false,"explanation":"This describes repeated exposure to different uniform conditions, not independent measures. Each pedestrian encountered one uniform only."}]},{"id":"aa847893-198c-445f-9e4a-cb78712ddde3","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Describe the sample in Experiment 1.","back":"An opportunity sample of 153 adult pedestrians, judged by eye to be aged 18 to 61.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"An opportunity sample of 153 adult pedestrians, judged by eye to be aged 18 to 61.","correct":true,"explanation":"The sample consisted of 153 available adult pedestrians. Their ages were estimated by eye as approximately 18 to 61, making it an opportunity sample."},{"text":"A volunteer sample of 153 adult pedestrians, aged exactly 18 to 61.","correct":false,"explanation":"Participants were approached as they passed, rather than volunteering in response to recruitment. Their ages were estimated, not known to be exactly 18 to 61."},{"text":"A random sample of 153 adult pedestrians, aged exactly 18 to 61.","correct":false,"explanation":"Pedestrians were selected because they were available and willing, not randomly sampled. Their ages were judged by eye rather than exact."},{"text":"An opportunity sample of 153 university students, judged by eye to be aged 18 to 61.","correct":false,"explanation":"The participants were adult pedestrians, not university students. The sampling method was opportunity sampling, with ages judged by eye."}]},{"id":"f66c64b6-e8d2-44a7-a061-cc887a8915fd","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"How was the Experiment 1 sample obtained?","back":"The researchers approached whoever was available and willing while passing by.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The researchers approached whoever was available and willing while passing by.","correct":true,"explanation":"This is opportunity sampling: researchers approached people who happened to be present and willing to respond while passing by."},{"text":"The researchers selected people who were young and alone while passing by.","correct":false,"explanation":"The sample was not restricted to young people or people alone. Researchers approached whoever was available and willing as they passed."},{"text":"The researchers recruited people who had volunteered online before the study.","correct":false,"explanation":"There was no online recruitment or prior volunteering. Participants were approached directly in the street if they were available and willing."},{"text":"The researchers selected people who were wearing formal clothes while passing by.","correct":false,"explanation":"Participants were not chosen based on their own clothing. The researchers approached whoever was available and willing."}]},{"id":"628349f1-eacb-4190-9bed-3be162643e14","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"The three outfits were a guard’s uniform, a milkman’s uniform and [ ].","back":"The three outfits were a guard’s uniform, a milkman’s uniform and civilian dress.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"civilian dress","correct":true,"explanation":"The three clothing conditions were a guard’s uniform, a milkman’s uniform and civilian dress, allowing the researchers to compare different signals of authority."},{"text":"police uniform","correct":false,"explanation":"A police uniform was not one of the three outfits used. The comparison involved guard, milkman and civilian clothing."},{"text":"business suit","correct":false,"explanation":"A business suit was not the civilian condition specified in Bickman’s study. The third outfit was civilian dress."},{"text":"military uniform","correct":false,"explanation":"Military clothing was not used as the third outfit. The actual conditions were a guard’s uniform, a milkman’s uniform and civilian dress."}]},{"id":"0efc359b-0114-43b8-960e-ede4079835d5","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why did all four confederates wear all three outfits?","back":"All four confederates wore all three outfits and behaved identically, helping isolate the effect of the uniform.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"All four confederates wore all three outfits and behaved identically, helping isolate the effect of the uniform.","correct":true,"explanation":"Having every confederate wear every outfit, while behaving identically, controlled for individual differences and isolated the effect of uniform."},{"text":"All four confederates wore all three outfits and behaved identically, helping isolate the effect of the weather.","correct":false,"explanation":"The repeated outfits and identical behaviour controlled confederate differences, allowing the effect of uniform to be isolated, not the weather."},{"text":"All four confederates wore all three outfits and behaved identically, helping isolate the effect of the pedestrian’s age.","correct":false,"explanation":"This procedure controlled the confederates so uniform effects could be tested. It did not isolate or manipulate the pedestrian’s age."},{"text":"All four confederates wore all three outfits and behaved identically, helping isolate the effect of the street location.","correct":false,"explanation":"The confederates’ consistency helped isolate uniform effects. It did not make street location the factor being investigated."}]},{"id":"c4d4bc8b-5877-4109-b60f-336a87e5dd03","cardType":"basic","points":3,"front":"What three orders were given in Experiment 1?","back":"

Pick up a paper bag from the ground.
Give a dime to a stranger for parking.
Move to the other side of a bus-stop pole.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Pick up a paper bag from the ground.
Give a dime to a stranger for parking.
Move to the other side of a bus-stop pole.

","correct":true,"explanation":"These were the three standardised orders used: picking up a paper bag, giving a dime for parking, and moving beside a bus-stop pole."},{"text":"

Pick up a newspaper from the ground.
Give a dime to a stranger for food.
Move to the other side of a shop doorway.

","correct":false,"explanation":"The actions were altered in each detail. Bickman used a paper bag, a dime for parking, and a bus-stop pole."},{"text":"

Pick up a paper bag from the ground.
Give a dime to a stranger for bus fare.
Move to the other side of a road crossing.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Only the first action matches. The other orders involved giving a dime for parking and moving to the other side of a bus-stop pole."},{"text":"

Pick up a coin from the ground.
Give a dime to a stranger for parking.
Move to the other side of a bus-stop pole.

","correct":false,"explanation":"The first object was a paper bag, not a coin. The other two orders are accurate, but changing one order makes this whole list incorrect."}]},{"id":"34a0a5db-bd1c-4796-937c-5ee925a92537","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"In Experiment 1, obedience to the guard was significantly higher than obedience to the [ ] for every order.","back":"In Experiment 1, obedience to the guard was significantly higher than obedience to the civilian for every order.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"civilian","correct":true,"explanation":"Guard clothing produced significantly more obedience than civilian clothing for every order, showing that the guard uniform conveyed greater authority."},{"text":"milkman","correct":false,"explanation":"The guard produced significantly more obedience than civilian clothing, while the milkman did not differ significantly from civilian clothing for every order."},{"text":"police officer","correct":false,"explanation":"A police officer was not one of the relevant conditions in this comparison. The significant contrast was between the guard and civilian clothing."},{"text":"businessperson","correct":false,"explanation":"Businessperson clothing was not used in Experiment 1. The guard was compared with civilian dress, which produced significantly less obedience."}]},{"id":"a1299da1-9d4a-408d-925e-6865258f940a","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What did the milkman condition show?","back":"The milkman produced no higher obedience than civilian clothing.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The milkman produced no higher obedience than civilian clothing.","correct":true,"explanation":"Obedience in the milkman condition was not significantly greater than in civilian clothing, suggesting that merely wearing a uniform did not create authority."},{"text":"The milkman produced much higher obedience than civilian clothing.","correct":false,"explanation":"The milkman uniform did not significantly increase obedience compared with civilian clothing. The strong obedience effect occurred for the guard uniform."},{"text":"The milkman produced slightly lower obedience than civilian clothing.","correct":false,"explanation":"The key finding was that milkman obedience was no higher than civilian obedience, rather than a reliable decrease below civilian clothing."},{"text":"The milkman produced the same obedience as the guard.","correct":false,"explanation":"The guard produced significantly more obedience than the civilian condition, whereas the milkman showed no higher obedience than civilian clothing."}]},{"id":"7e8997db-d5a8-4630-8d9e-e48a59220797","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why is the milkman condition important?","back":"It shows that authority-related social power depends on what the uniform signals, not simply on wearing any uniform.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It shows that authority-related social power depends on what the uniform signals, not simply on wearing any uniform.","correct":true,"explanation":"The guard increased obedience but the milkman did not, indicating that authority depends on the meaning or signal attached to a uniform."},{"text":"It shows that authority-related social power depends on the uniform’s colour, not simply on wearing any uniform.","correct":false,"explanation":"The finding concerns the authority signal associated with the role, not uniform colour alone. Different uniforms conveyed different levels of social power."},{"text":"It shows that authority-related social power depends on the uniform’s price, not simply on wearing any uniform.","correct":false,"explanation":"There is no evidence that clothing price explained obedience. The important factor was what the uniform signalled about authority."},{"text":"It shows that authority-related social power depends on the uniform’s comfort, not simply on wearing any uniform.","correct":false,"explanation":"Comfort was not measured as the explanation for obedience. The results suggest that the authority meaning signalled by the uniform mattered."}]},{"id":"17c58d5f-76fc-470e-b02b-8c1a4485f76f","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What did Experiment 2 find?","back":"

Obedience was much higher to the guard.
Surveillance made no significant difference.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Obedience was much higher to the guard.
Surveillance made no significant difference.

","correct":true,"explanation":"Experiment 2 replicated the guard’s strong authority effect, while observing or not observing the pedestrians did not significantly alter obedience."},{"text":"

Obedience was much higher to the milkman.
Surveillance made no significant difference.

","correct":false,"explanation":"The guard, not the milkman, produced much higher obedience. Surveillance made no significant difference, so only the first finding is wrong."},{"text":"

Obedience was much higher to the guard.
Surveillance significantly increased obedience.

","correct":false,"explanation":"The guard effect was found, but surveillance did not significantly affect obedience. Adding a significant surveillance effect reverses Experiment 2’s result."},{"text":"

Obedience was the same across outfits.
Surveillance significantly increased obedience.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Experiment 2 found much higher obedience to the guard and no significant surveillance effect. Both claims here conflict with those findings."}]},{"id":"fb0f4859-f3d7-4541-9289-2cc4eb0b38c4","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What did Experiment 3A find about perceived rights?","back":"Students did not rate the guard as having more right to give the orders than the other outfits.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Students did not rate the guard as having more right to give the orders than the other outfits.","correct":true,"explanation":"Students did not judge the guard as having significantly greater rights to give orders, despite pedestrians obeying the guard more often."},{"text":"Students rated the guard as having more right to give the orders than the other outfits.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses Experiment 3A’s finding. Students did not rate the guard as having more right to give orders than the other outfits."},{"text":"Students rated the guard as having more knowledge to give the orders than the other outfits.","correct":false,"explanation":"The measure concerned perceived right to give orders, not knowledge. Students did not rate the guard higher on that perceived right."},{"text":"Students rated the guard as having more responsibility to obey the orders than the other outfits.","correct":false,"explanation":"The study assessed the perceived right of the person to give orders, not responsibility to obey. No greater right was attributed to the guard."}]},{"id":"0f85506b-23cd-447a-9ca2-f7229d576841","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What did Experiment 3B students predict?","back":"They did not predict that the guard would obtain greater obedience.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They did not predict that the guard would obtain greater obedience.","correct":true,"explanation":"The students failed to predict the guard effect. They expected pedestrians’ obedience to be similar, although the real pedestrians obeyed the guard more often than other dress conditions."},{"text":"They predicted that the guard would obtain greater obedience.","correct":false,"explanation":"Students predicted the opposite of the actual finding, perhaps because they expected the guard’s uniform to signal authority. In reality, Experiment 3B students did not predict greater obedience to the guard."},{"text":"They predicted that the civilian would obtain greater obedience.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the observed comparison between clothing conditions. Students did not predict greater obedience to the guard, but the study found that the guard obtained greater obedience from pedestrians."},{"text":"They predicted that the businessman would obtain greater obedience.","correct":false,"explanation":"The students did not identify the business suit as producing the greatest obedience. Their prediction was that the guard would not obtain greater obedience, contrary to the pedestrians’ actual behaviour."}]},{"id":"59a763b3-017d-4d75-831c-b122543e7d04","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How do Bickman’s results support situational factors?","back":"The pedestrians’ behaviour changed when only the outfit changed, supporting situational factors as an explanation of obedience.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The pedestrians’ behaviour changed when only the outfit changed, supporting situational factors as an explanation of obedience.","correct":true,"explanation":"Only the experimenter’s outfit was changed between conditions, yet obedience varied. This shows that a situational cue, the appearance of authority, influenced behaviour rather than obedience depending solely on personality."},{"text":"The pedestrians’ behaviour changed when only the order changed, supporting situational factors as an explanation of obedience.","correct":false,"explanation":"The order was intended to remain comparable across conditions, so this wrongly identifies the manipulated variable. Bickman changed the experimenter’s outfit, and pedestrians’ obedience changed with it."},{"text":"The pedestrians’ behaviour changed when only the location changed, supporting situational factors as an explanation of obedience.","correct":false,"explanation":"The study took place in comparable public street settings rather than testing different locations as the key variable. The important change was the experimenter’s outfit, which altered perceived authority."},{"text":"The pedestrians’ behaviour changed when only the personality changed, supporting situational factors as an explanation of obedience.","correct":false,"explanation":"Personality was not deliberately manipulated or measured as the changing factor. Bickman altered the experimenter’s clothing, and the resulting change in obedience supports a situational explanation."}]},{"id":"6ebe5075-e393-4396-915c-553322c4aa8b","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What conclusion did Bickman draw about authority-signalling uniforms?","back":"Uniforms signifying authority carry social power, even when the wearer has no legitimate right to give orders.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Uniforms signifying authority carry social power, even when the wearer has no legitimate right to give orders.","correct":true,"explanation":"The uniform acted as a visible signal of authority, increasing the wearer’s influence. Bickman therefore concluded that authority-signalling uniforms carry social power independently of legitimate rights."},{"text":"Uniforms signifying authority carry personal confidence, even when the wearer has no legitimate right to give orders.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses confidence with the social influence created by an authority uniform. Bickman concluded that such uniforms carry social power, even without legitimate authority behind them."},{"text":"Uniforms signifying authority carry legal responsibility, even when the wearer has no legitimate right to give orders.","correct":false,"explanation":"A uniform may suggest authority, but it does not create legal responsibility or lawful powers. Bickman’s conclusion concerned social power, meaning influence over others’ behaviour."},{"text":"Uniforms signifying authority carry physical strength, even when the wearer has no legitimate right to give orders.","correct":false,"explanation":"The uniform did not demonstrate or create physical strength. It signalled authority and gave the wearer social power, which made pedestrians more likely to comply with orders."}]},{"id":"5db2d8ea-cb3b-4354-9481-7fa06044a531","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What conclusion did Experiment 3B support about predicting obedience?","back":"People cannot accurately predict their own obedience: students expected no guard effect, but pedestrians obeyed guards more.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"People cannot accurately predict their own obedience: students expected no guard effect, but pedestrians obeyed guards more.","correct":true,"explanation":"Students expected the guard’s clothing to have no special effect, but real pedestrians showed greater obedience to guards. This mismatch demonstrates that people may misjudge how they will behave."},{"text":"People can accurately predict their own obedience: students expected no guard effect, but pedestrians obeyed guards more.","correct":false,"explanation":"This says the opposite of the conclusion. The students’ prediction failed because pedestrians obeyed guards more, showing that people cannot accurately predict their own obedience in this situation."},{"text":"People cannot accurately predict their own resistance: students expected no guard effect, but pedestrians obeyed guards more.","correct":false,"explanation":"The study concerned predicting obedience, not predicting resistance. The students underestimated the guard’s influence, while pedestrians obeyed guards more often, supporting the conclusion about inaccurate obedience predictions."},{"text":"People can accurately predict their own resistance: students expected no guard effect, but pedestrians obeyed guards more.","correct":false,"explanation":"Neither the conclusion nor the measured prediction concerned resistance. Students failed to anticipate the greater obedience produced by the guard uniform, so the relevant concept is inaccurate prediction of obedience."}]},{"id":"fe265dcb-6617-4586-9532-c6c2e4914f0d","cardType":"basic","points":3,"front":"Why did Bickman’s study have high ecological validity and little demand characteristic bias?","back":"

Pedestrians received realistic orders in a real street.
They did not know they were studied, reducing demand characteristics.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Pedestrians received realistic orders in a real street.
They did not know they were studied, reducing demand characteristics.

","correct":true,"explanation":"The natural street setting made the orders realistic, supporting ecological validity. Because pedestrians were unaware of the research, they had little opportunity to alter their behaviour to meet expectations."},{"text":"

Pedestrians received realistic orders in a laboratory.
They did not know they were studied, reducing demand characteristics.

","correct":false,"explanation":"The lack of participant awareness reduced demand characteristics, but the setting was not a laboratory. Orders were given in a real street, producing realistic behaviour and high ecological validity."},{"text":"

Pedestrians received realistic orders in a real street.
They knew they were studied, reducing demand characteristics.

","correct":false,"explanation":"The real street explains the study’s ecological validity, but pedestrians did not know they were being studied. Awareness would usually increase demand characteristics rather than reduce them."},{"text":"

Pedestrians received realistic orders in a real street.
They did not know they were studied, increasing demand characteristics.

","correct":false,"explanation":"A real street supports ecological validity and lack of awareness reduces demand characteristics. It cannot increase demand characteristics when participants do not know a study is taking place."}]},{"id":"d8898648-ae43-4a9a-b925-3deffb5af3d5","cardType":"basic","points":3,"front":"What were three ethical criticisms of Bickman’s study?","back":"

Pedestrians were deceived.
They were not debriefed.
They could not withdraw their data.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Pedestrians were deceived.
They were not debriefed.
They could not withdraw their data.

","correct":true,"explanation":"Bickman’s covert field study deceived pedestrians, who were not debriefed afterwards. Their lack of awareness also meant they had no opportunity to withdraw the data collected about their behaviour."},{"text":"

Pedestrians were informed.
They were not debriefed.
They could not withdraw their data.

","correct":false,"explanation":"The ethical criticism was that pedestrians were deceived, not informed. They were also not debriefed and could not withdraw their data, so the first item incorrectly removes the deception issue."},{"text":"

Pedestrians were deceived.
They were debriefed.
They could not withdraw their data.

","correct":false,"explanation":"The pedestrians were not debriefed, so they could not receive a full explanation after being deceived. Deception and inability to withdraw data were also ethical criticisms."},{"text":"

Pedestrians were deceived.
They were not debriefed.
They could withdraw their data.

","correct":false,"explanation":"The study involved deception and no debriefing, but participants could not withdraw their data because they were unaware of the research. Therefore the final ethical criticism is misstated."}]},{"id":"b109e11b-92d7-49f2-a778-d7e28af81964","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why was control of extraneous variables a weakness?","back":"Weather, street busyness and the reason each person was out could affect compliance, reducing control of extraneous variables.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Weather, street busyness and the reason each person was out could affect compliance, reducing control of extraneous variables.","correct":true,"explanation":"These situational differences were not fully controlled and could influence whether someone complied. They therefore acted as extraneous variables, making it harder to attribute obedience solely to clothing."},{"text":"Weather, street busyness and the reason each person was out could affect compliance, reducing control of participants.","correct":false,"explanation":"The problem concerns uncontrolled influences on compliance, not control of the participants themselves. Weather, busyness and purpose of travel reduced control of extraneous variables."},{"text":"Weather, street busyness and the reason each person was out could affect compliance, reducing control of demand characteristics.","correct":false,"explanation":"Demand characteristics involve participants guessing the study’s aim and changing behaviour. The listed factors are uncontrolled situational influences, so they reduce control of extraneous variables instead."},{"text":"Weather, street busyness and the reason each person was out could affect compliance, reducing control of the independent variable.","correct":false,"explanation":"The independent variable was the experimenter’s outfit, which Bickman deliberately changed. Weather, busyness and people’s reasons for being out were extraneous influences that were insufficiently controlled."}]},{"id":"46926695-2eae-4270-84bf-4103ee2907f7","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why might Bickman’s findings be culturally biased?","back":"The large American city sample may not represent obedience in other cultures or settings, such as rural communities.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The large American city sample may not represent obedience in other cultures or settings, such as rural communities.","correct":true,"explanation":"People in rural communities or other cultures may respond differently to uniforms and authority. A sample from one large American city may therefore have limited cultural and situational generalisability."},{"text":"The large American city sample may not represent obedience in other age groups, such as rural communities.","correct":false,"explanation":"Rural communities describe different cultures or settings, not age groups. The concern is that findings from a large American city may not generalise to people in other cultural or environmental contexts."},{"text":"The large American city sample may not represent obedience in other uniforms or commands, such as rural communities.","correct":false,"explanation":"Uniforms and commands are features of the procedure, while rural communities are populations or settings. The relevant limitation is whether the American city sample represents other cultures or settings."},{"text":"The large American city sample may not represent obedience in other experiments or hypotheses, such as rural communities.","correct":false,"explanation":"Experiments and hypotheses are not the groups or contexts to which findings are generalised. The possible cultural bias concerns applying results from an American city to other cultures or settings."}]}]}],"examCountdown":{"examDate":"2027-05-10","paperLabel":"Paper 1"},"heading":"4.2.3 Situational Factors research study: Bickman (1974)","title":"4.2.3 Situational Factors research study: Bickman (1974) Flashcards","topbar":{"backHref":"/gcse/psychology/ocr/flashcards"},"topicSidebar":"$L90"}]}],"topicId":"7dc47904-b273-4571-8d74-ff306c297afc","walled":"$L91"}],"$L92","$L93"]