What you'll learn

• Why a growing percentage of the world’s population lives in urban areas.
• How cities grow through migration and natural increase.
• The opportunities and challenges created by urban growth in an LIC or NEE city and a UK city.
• How urban planning, regeneration and sustainable transport can improve quality of life.

1. The big picture: an urbanising world

An urban area is a built-up place with a high population density and lots of non-farming jobs, such as industry, offices, retail and services. Urban change means changes in the size, structure, economy and living conditions of towns and cities.

In GCSE Geography, an HIC is a high-income country, an LIC is a low-income country, and an NEE is a newly emerging economy: a country with rapid economic growth and industrial development, such as Brazil, India, China or Nigeria.

Globally, over half of people now live in urban areas, and this share is projected to keep rising. The fastest rates of urban growth are mostly in parts of Asia and Africa, especially in LICs and NEEs. Many HICs already have a high percentage of people living in cities, so their urbanisation is usually slower.

Urban trends in HICs, LICs and NEEs

In many HICs, urban areas grew rapidly during industrialisation, but growth is now slower. Some HIC cities experience:

• Suburbanisation: growth of suburbs on the edge of a city.
• Counter-urbanisation: movement from cities to smaller towns or rural areas.
• Re-urbanisation: people and investment returning to inner-city areas, often after regeneration.

In many LICs and NEEs, cities are growing quickly because of rural-to-urban migration, natural increase and economic development. This can create new jobs and services, but also pressure on housing, water, sanitation and transport.

2. Why do cities grow?

Migration: push and pull factors

Migration is the movement of people from one place to another. In urbanisation, a common pattern is rural-to-urban migration, where people move from countryside areas into towns and cities.

A push factor is something that encourages people to leave a place, such as few jobs, poor healthcare, drought, conflict or poor education. A pull factor is something that attracts people to a place, such as better-paid work, schools, hospitals, transport and housing.

Natural increase

Natural increase happens when the birth rate is higher than the death rate. In many LIC and NEE cities, the population is young, so there are many people of child-bearing age. Better access to healthcare can also reduce death rates, helping the city population grow faster.

Megacities

A megacity is a city with a population of over 10 million people. Examples include Tokyo, Delhi, Shanghai, São Paulo, Cairo and Lagos. The number of megacities has increased over time, and many of the fastest-growing ones are in LICs and NEEs.

3. Case study: urban growth in an LIC or NEE city

A case study is a detailed place study. Many schools use Lagos, Nigeria as the LIC/NEE city case study. If your class uses Rio de Janeiro, Mumbai, Nairobi or another city, keep the same headings but swap in your own place-specific detail.

Lagos: location and importance

Lagos is in south-west Nigeria, on the Atlantic coast beside Lagos Lagoon. Nigeria is commonly treated as an NEE in AQA resources. Lagos is not Nigeria’s capital city — Abuja is — but Lagos is still the country’s major economic centre.

Lagos is important at several scales:

• Regionally: it attracts migrants from across south-west Nigeria and wider West Africa.
• Nationally: it is Nigeria’s main commercial centre, with major ports at Apapa and Tin Can Island, plus finance, manufacturing and services.
• Internationally: it is linked to global trade, oil-related business, film and media through Nollywood, technology and international air travel.

Causes of growth in Lagos

Lagos has grown because of both migration and natural increase. Many migrants move from rural areas because farming incomes can be low and services may be limited. They are pulled to Lagos by jobs, education, healthcare and the possibility of a better standard of living.

Natural increase also matters. Lagos has a young population, and improved access to healthcare in the city can reduce death rates compared with some rural areas.

Opportunities created by growth

Rapid urban growth can create real opportunities.

Social opportunities include better access to schools, universities, hospitals and clinics than in many rural areas. Water and electricity networks are also more developed in the city, although access is uneven.

Economic opportunities include jobs in manufacturing, construction, transport, retail, finance and the informal economy. Industrial areas such as Ikeja and port-related zones can stimulate development through the multiplier effect, where one job or investment creates further jobs and income in linked businesses.

Challenges created by growth

Rapid growth can also create major challenges.

Informal settlements, sometimes called slums or squatter settlements, are areas where people build homes without formal planning permission or secure legal ownership. In Lagos, areas such as Makoko show how housing supply has struggled to keep up with population growth.

Key challenges include:

• Water, sanitation and energy: sanitation means toilets, sewers and wastewater treatment. Many households rely on water vendors, boreholes or shared toilets, and electricity supply can be unreliable.
• Health and education: clinics and schools can become overcrowded, especially in fast-growing low-income areas.
• Unemployment and crime: many people work in insecure informal jobs, and high youth unemployment can increase social problems.
• Waste and pollution: waste collection may not keep pace with growth. Water pollution affects lagoons and drainage channels, while air pollution comes from vehicles, generators and industry.
• Traffic congestion: congestion happens when too many vehicles use the road network, slowing journeys and increasing emissions.

Example: planning to improve quality of life

An example is a smaller, focused place or project. A widely used example is the Favela-Bairro project in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, an NEE city. It aimed to improve conditions in favelas by adding infrastructure and services rather than simply removing residents.

4. Urban change in the UK

The UK population is unevenly distributed. The highest densities are mainly in lowland England, especially London and the South East, the West Midlands, North West England, Yorkshire and parts of South Wales and central Scotland. More sparsely populated areas include upland Scotland, parts of Wales, northern England and rural south-west England.

Major UK cities include London, Birmingham, Manchester, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool, Newcastle, Bristol, Cardiff and Belfast. The diagram below helps you link UK city structure to brownfield land, suburbs, the rural-urban fringe and commuter settlements.

5. Case study: a major UK city

Many schools use London as the UK city case study. London is in south-east England on the River Thames. It is the UK capital and a global city, with major roles in finance, government, culture, tourism, education, law, media and transport.

Migration and the character of London

London has been shaped by both national and international migration. People move there from other UK regions for university, work and cultural opportunities. International migration has created a diverse city with many languages, religions, cuisines, businesses and cultural festivals.

This gives London a strong cultural mix and a large workforce, but it can also increase pressure on housing, schools, healthcare and transport.

Opportunities in London

London offers major social, economic and environmental opportunities:

• Cultural mix: diverse communities support restaurants, shops, festivals, places of worship and global connections.
• Recreation and entertainment: theatres, museums, parks, sports venues and music events attract residents and tourists.
• Employment: finance in the City and Canary Wharf, creative industries, education, healthcare, technology and tourism provide many jobs.
• Integrated transport: an integrated transport system links different modes, such as Underground, buses, rail, Overground and the Elizabeth line, making journeys easier.
• Urban greening: urban greening means adding or improving green space, such as parks, trees, green roofs and river paths, which can support wellbeing, reduce flood risk and cool the city.

Challenges in London

London also faces serious challenges.

Urban deprivation means lacking things needed for a reasonable quality of life, such as good housing, income, health, education and safe environments. Inequality means differences between people or areas. London contains very wealthy areas close to areas with high deprivation, so housing, education, health and employment outcomes can vary sharply.

Environmental challenges include dereliction, meaning abandoned or run-down land and buildings, plus pressure to build on brownfield sites and greenfield sites. Brownfield sites have been built on before, while greenfield sites are undeveloped countryside or farmland.

The rural-urban fringe is the zone where the city meets the countryside. Urban sprawl is the outward spread of built-up areas, often low-density and car-dependent. This can lead to loss of farmland and habitats, more traffic, and pressure on villages that become commuter settlements, where many residents travel into the city for work.

6. Example: urban regeneration in the UK

Urban regeneration is investment to improve an area socially, economically and environmentally. A common example is the Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park in Stratford, East London.

Stratford and the Lower Lea Valley needed regeneration because the area had derelict industrial land, polluted waterways, low incomes in some neighbourhoods, and a need for better housing and employment opportunities.

Main features of the project included:

• Cleaning up contaminated brownfield land.
• Building sports venues, parkland, wetlands and public spaces.
• Improving transport connections around Stratford.
• Creating new housing, including East Village.
• Developing retail and employment opportunities, such as Westfield Stratford City.
• Providing community facilities, including education and recreation.

The project improved the image and economy of the area, but evaluation is important: some local people have questioned whether all new housing is affordable and whether the benefits are shared equally.

7. Sustainable urban living and transport

Sustainable cities try to conserve resources, reduce pollution and improve quality of life.

Key features include:

• Water conservation: water meters, low-flow taps, rainwater harvesting, greywater reuse and sustainable drainage systems.
• Energy conservation: insulation, efficient appliances, solar panels, district heating and buildings designed to reduce heat loss.
• Waste recycling: separating waste, composting, repair and reuse schemes, and reducing waste before it is created.
• Green space: parks, trees, allotments, green roofs and wildlife corridors that improve air quality, reduce flood risk and support mental health.

Urban transport strategies reduce congestion by encouraging people to use alternatives to private cars. These include bus lanes, trams, cycle routes, pedestrianised streets, park-and-ride, congestion charging, low-emission zones and better integrated ticketing.