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cells, so every cell makes antibodies with the same structure and antigen-binding site."},{"text":"They are produced from several different types of white blood cell.","correct":false,"explanation":"Different white blood cell clones produce antibodies with different binding sites. Monoclonal antibodies are identical because they come from a single clone of identical cells."},{"text":"They are produced against a mixture of different antigens.","correct":false,"explanation":"A mixture of antigens would stimulate several cell clones and produce varied antibodies. A monoclonal preparation instead comes from a single clone of identical cells."},{"text":"They are produced by joining two different antibody molecules.","correct":false,"explanation":"Joining different antibodies would not create a uniform monoclonal preparation. Every molecule is identical because a single clone of identical cells produces them."}]},{"id":"230e3947-0612-4d15-a6ae-09870c574095","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why does a monoclonal antibody bind to only one specific target?","back":"Its shape is complementary to one specific antigen.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Its shape is complementary to one specific antigen.","correct":true,"explanation":"The antibody’s binding site has a shape complementary to one particular antigen, allowing that target to bind while differently shaped antigens do not."},{"text":"Its shape is complementary to every antigen on a pathogen.","correct":false,"explanation":"An antibody does not have a binding site for every antigen on a pathogen. Its binding site is complementary to one specific antigen only."},{"text":"Its shape is identical to one specific antigen.","correct":false,"explanation":"Binding requires complementary shapes, not identical ones, much like matching interlocking shapes. The antibody’s binding site is complementary to one specific antigen."},{"text":"Its shape changes to match any nearby antigen.","correct":false,"explanation":"The binding site does not reshape itself to recognise any target. A monoclonal antibody binds selectively because its shape complements one specific antigen."}]},{"id":"f2fdf2fc-f89a-4f53-a91e-24bfe22342e1","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What types of target can a monoclonal antibody bind to?","back":"A specific cell type or a specific chemical, such as a hormone.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A specific cell type or a specific chemical, such as a hormone.","correct":true,"explanation":"Antigens can identify particular cell types or chemicals, so monoclonal antibodies can be designed to bind selectively to either kind of target."},{"text":"Any cell type or any chemical, regardless of its shape.","correct":false,"explanation":"Antibody binding is shape-specific rather than universal. A monoclonal antibody recognises a specific cell type or a specific chemical, such as a hormone."},{"text":"A specific organ or a specific element, such as oxygen.","correct":false,"explanation":"Monoclonal antibodies recognise particular antigens, not whole organs or individual chemical elements. Their targets can be a specific cell type or chemical, such as a hormone."},{"text":"A specific tissue type or a specific nutrient, such as glucose.","correct":false,"explanation":"Although tissues and nutrients may seem plausible targets, the stated applications involve recognising a specific cell type or a specific chemical, such as a hormone."}]},{"id":"1c9b2a21-d52f-4e86-b009-deb043e648cc","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"A monoclonal antibody can pick out one target because it binds to a specific [ ].","back":"A monoclonal antibody can pick out one target because it binds to a specific antigen.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"antigen","correct":true,"explanation":"An antigen has a specific shape that is recognised by the monoclonal antibody’s complementary binding site, enabling the antibody to select one target."},{"text":"antibody","correct":false,"explanation":"An antibody is the binding molecule, not the feature it recognises. It picks out a target by binding to a specific antigen."},{"text":"enzyme","correct":false,"explanation":"Enzymes bind substrates at active sites, which can be confused with antibody specificity. A monoclonal antibody selects its target by binding to a specific antigen."},{"text":"pathogen","correct":false,"explanation":"A pathogen may carry many different antigens, so it is not the precise binding feature. The antibody recognises one specific antigen on or from the target."}]},{"id":"099f70ca-db59-4ac6-b7a4-dd04d3e31529","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What can be attached to a monoclonal antibody to allow it to be tracked?","back":"A fluorescent dye or radioactive label.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A fluorescent dye or radioactive label.","correct":true,"explanation":"Fluorescent dyes and radioactive labels produce detectable signals, allowing researchers or doctors to locate and track where labelled monoclonal antibodies bind."},{"text":"A digestive enzyme or glucose molecule.","correct":false,"explanation":"Digestive enzymes and glucose do not provide a suitable tracking signal. A fluorescent dye or radioactive label is attached so the antibody’s location can be detected."},{"text":"A white blood cell or platelet fragment.","correct":false,"explanation":"Cells and cell fragments are not tracking labels attached to antibodies. A fluorescent dye or radioactive label provides a measurable signal showing where antibodies accumulate."},{"text":"A different antigen or second pathogen.","correct":false,"explanation":"Attaching another antigen or pathogen would not reliably reveal the antibody’s location. Tracking requires a detectable fluorescent dye or radioactive label."}]},{"id":"e7d60b2d-f74b-4b92-96c3-e77984a6bcb7","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which hormone is detected by a pregnancy test?","back":"HCG - human chorionic gonadotropin.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"HCG - human chorionic gonadotropin.","correct":true,"explanation":"HCG is produced after implantation and enters the mother’s urine. Pregnancy tests use monoclonal antibodies that bind specifically to this hormone."},{"text":"FSH - follicle-stimulating hormone.","correct":false,"explanation":"FSH regulates egg development and is not the hormone used to confirm pregnancy. Pregnancy tests detect HCG, meaning human chorionic gonadotropin."},{"text":"LH - luteinising hormone.","correct":false,"explanation":"LH surges before ovulation, so confusing ovulation and pregnancy tests makes this tempting. Pregnancy tests specifically detect HCG, or human chorionic gonadotropin."},{"text":"ADH - antidiuretic hormone.","correct":false,"explanation":"ADH controls water balance and urine concentration, but its presence does not indicate pregnancy. Pregnancy tests detect HCG, meaning human chorionic gonadotropin."}]},{"id":"4d2503ce-9097-46ee-8d09-271437f0c76d","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Where is HCG detected by a pregnancy test?","back":"In the urine.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"In the urine.","correct":true,"explanation":"HCG produced during pregnancy passes into the urine, where antibodies in a home pregnancy test can detect it and produce a visible result."},{"text":"In the saliva.","correct":false,"explanation":"Saliva is used for some diagnostic tests, but standard pregnancy tests are designed to detect HCG in urine."},{"text":"In the sweat.","correct":false,"explanation":"Sweat contains some dissolved substances, but pregnancy tests do not use it as their sample. They detect HCG in urine."},{"text":"In the exhaled air.","correct":false,"explanation":"Breath tests can detect certain gases or chemicals, which may cause this confusion. Pregnancy tests instead detect dissolved HCG in urine."}]},{"id":"08e0457a-185b-4753-ab66-df1a17a89569","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How does a pregnancy test produce a positive result?","back":"HCG binds to the monoclonal antibodies, causing a colour change.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"HCG binds to the monoclonal antibodies, causing a colour change.","correct":true,"explanation":"When HCG is present, it binds to specific monoclonal antibodies and forms a labelled complex that produces the visible colour change indicating pregnancy."},{"text":"HCG destroys the monoclonal antibodies, causing a temperature change.","correct":false,"explanation":"The test does not depend on antibody destruction or temperature. HCG binds specifically to monoclonal antibodies, leading to a visible colour change."},{"text":"HCG reacts with the urine directly, causing a pH change.","correct":false,"explanation":"Pregnancy tests are immunoassays rather than direct acid-base tests. HCG binds to monoclonal antibodies, and this interaction produces a visible colour change."},{"text":"HCG passes through the monoclonal antibodies, causing a mass change.","correct":false,"explanation":"The result does not depend on a measurable change in mass. HCG binds to the monoclonal antibodies and causes a visible colour change."}]},{"id":"767f2fb6-8898-4854-aaf7-ff82dff33aad","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"If HCG is absent from the urine, the antibodies have nothing to bind to and no [ ] appears.","back":"If HCG is absent from the urine, the antibodies have nothing to bind to and no line appears.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"line","correct":true,"explanation":"Without HCG, the labelled antibodies cannot form the complex required at the test region, so no positive result line develops."},{"text":"hormone","correct":false,"explanation":"HCG is the hormone whose absence prevents a positive result, but the visible feature that fails to appear is the line."},{"text":"antigen","correct":false,"explanation":"HCG acts as the antigen recognised by the antibodies, but it is not the visible test result. With no HCG, no positive line appears."},{"text":"antibody","correct":false,"explanation":"The test already contains antibodies whether or not HCG is present. What fails to appear when HCG is absent is the positive result line."}]},{"id":"996d3396-1e4b-4ec8-8c02-35af7320aebe","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How can antibodies help doctors diagnose disease?","back":"They bind to antigens on pathogens, blood clots or cancer cells, and a marker shows where they accumulate.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They bind to antigens on pathogens, blood clots or cancer cells, and a marker shows where they accumulate.","correct":true,"explanation":"Target-specific antibodies collect where matching antigens occur, while an attached marker reveals this location and helps doctors identify pathogens, clots or cancer cells."},{"text":"They bind to antigens on red blood cells, neurones or muscle cells, and a marker destroys where they accumulate.","correct":false,"explanation":"Markers reveal antibody location rather than destroying normal cells. Diagnostic antibodies can bind antigens on pathogens, blood clots or cancer cells, showing where these targets accumulate."},{"text":"They bind to antibodies on pathogens, blood clots or cancer cells, and a marker shows where they divide.","correct":false,"explanation":"Monoclonal antibodies bind antigens, not other antibodies, and markers reveal accumulation rather than division. Their targets include pathogens, blood clots or cancer cells."},{"text":"They bind to antigens in healthy organs, bones or skin cells, and a marker shows where they accumulate.","correct":false,"explanation":"Diagnosis relies on antibodies targeting features associated with disease, not general healthy structures. They bind antigens on pathogens, blood clots or cancer cells, and markers reveal them."}]},{"id":"74628d8e-2601-4891-9bd0-4ad02fada816","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How can monoclonal antibodies be used to measure or monitor disease?","back":"They measure the level of a hormone or other chemical in blood, or detect a pathogen.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They measure the level of a hormone or other chemical in blood, or detect a pathogen.","correct":true,"explanation":"Because monoclonal antibodies bind specific targets, their signal can quantify a hormone or chemical in blood or reveal the presence of a particular pathogen."},{"text":"They measure the level of a red blood cell or platelet in blood, or destroy a pathogen.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses antibody tests with cell counts and treatments. Monoclonal antibodies can measure a hormone or other chemical in blood, or detect a pathogen."},{"text":"They measure the level of a tissue or whole organ in blood, or detect a mutation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Whole tissues and organs are not measured as dissolved blood targets by these tests. Antibodies measure hormones or other chemicals, or detect pathogens."},{"text":"They measure the level of an antibody-producing cell in blood, or create a pathogen.","correct":false,"explanation":"Diagnostic monoclonal antibodies neither count antibody-producing cells nor create pathogens. They measure a hormone or other chemical in blood, or detect a pathogen."}]},{"id":"1e1d83ee-e0b8-4228-b1fa-2f121b1e6848","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"How can antibodies be used to screen donated blood?","back":"They can detect pathogens such as HIV in the donated blood.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They can detect pathogens such as HIV in the donated blood.","correct":true,"explanation":"Antibodies used in screening recognise specific markers associated with HIV, helping prevent infected donated blood from being supplied to patients."},{"text":"They can detect deficiencies such as scurvy in the donated blood.","correct":false,"explanation":"Scurvy is caused by vitamin C deficiency and is not the transmissible pathogen being screened for here. Antibody tests can detect pathogens such as HIV."},{"text":"They can detect conditions such as diabetes in the donated blood.","correct":false,"explanation":"Diabetes is a metabolic condition rather than an infectious agent transmitted in donated blood. Monoclonal antibody screening can detect pathogens such as HIV."},{"text":"They can detect pathogens such as malaria in the donor’s saliva.","correct":false,"explanation":"This changes both the sample and the stated example. Donated blood is screened directly, and monoclonal antibodies can detect pathogens such as HIV within it."}]},{"id":"a8d2d1ab-7f04-4a29-9b2b-ce0bf875a86b","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How are monoclonal antibodies used in biological research?","back":"A fluorescently labelled antibody binds to specific molecules, showing where they are in cells or tissues.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A fluorescently labelled antibody binds to specific molecules, showing where they are in cells or tissues.","correct":true,"explanation":"The antibody binds only its target molecule, and its fluorescent label can be viewed to reveal the molecule’s distribution within cells or tissues."},{"text":"A fluorescently labelled antibody destroys specific molecules, showing how quickly cells or tissues divide.","correct":false,"explanation":"Fluorescent antibodies are used as location markers, not primarily to destroy molecules or measure division. Binding reveals where specific molecules occur in cells or tissues."},{"text":"A fluorescently labelled antibody binds to all molecules, showing how many cells or tissues are alive.","correct":false,"explanation":"Monoclonal antibodies bind specific targets rather than all molecules. Their fluorescence shows where those particular molecules are located in cells or tissues."},{"text":"A fluorescently labelled antibody produces specific molecules, showing when they leave cells or tissues.","correct":false,"explanation":"Antibodies do not produce their target molecules. A fluorescently labelled antibody binds a specific molecule and reveals where it is in cells or tissues."}]},{"id":"89af40d3-67e0-4f12-9e4b-f3f017fe324f","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"In research, monoclonal antibodies can be attached to a [ ] to show where molecules are located.","back":"In research, monoclonal antibodies can be attached to a fluorescent dye to show where molecules are located.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"fluorescent dye","correct":true,"explanation":"A fluorescent dye emits detectable light when viewed appropriately, revealing where the attached antibody and its specific target molecules are located."},{"text":"digestive enzyme","correct":false,"explanation":"A digestive enzyme breaks down biological molecules and does not provide the required visible location marker. Researchers attach a fluorescent dye to reveal antibody binding."},{"text":"growth hormone","correct":false,"explanation":"A growth hormone is a possible target for an antibody, not a label used to locate targets. A fluorescent dye provides the detectable signal."},{"text":"white blood cell","correct":false,"explanation":"White blood cells participate in immune responses but are not labels attached to research antibodies. A fluorescent dye makes the antibody’s location visible."}]},{"id":"f16d66e4-eb58-4af7-9370-a1e9e2b6eb60","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How can a monoclonal antibody target cancer cells?","back":"It is made to bind to antigens on cancer cells.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It is made to bind to antigens on cancer cells.","correct":true,"explanation":"Cancer cells can display characteristic antigens, and a monoclonal antibody with a complementary binding site can selectively attach to those cells."},{"text":"It is made to bind to antibodies inside cancer cells.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the binding roles and places the target inside the cell. A therapeutic monoclonal antibody binds to antigens displayed on cancer cells."},{"text":"It is made to bind to enzymes on every body cell.","correct":false,"explanation":"Binding every body cell would remove the selectivity needed to reduce damage to healthy tissue. The antibody is designed for antigens on cancer cells."},{"text":"It is made to bind to DNA in healthy cells.","correct":false,"explanation":"Targeting DNA in healthy cells would not selectively identify a tumour and could damage normal tissue. The antibody binds antigens on cancer cells."}]},{"id":"ccdab22a-dcfa-41fc-b476-1473c32ccb36","cardType":"basic","points":3,"front":"What can a monoclonal antibody carry to cancer cells?","back":"A radioactive substance, toxic drug or chemical that stops cell growth and division.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A radioactive substance, toxic drug or chemical that stops cell growth and division.","correct":true,"explanation":"The antibody delivers the attached treatment specifically to cancer cells, where radiation, toxicity or inhibited cell division can destroy or restrain the tumour."},{"text":"A fluorescent substance, nutrient solution or chemical that increases cell growth and division.","correct":false,"explanation":"Increasing growth would support the tumour, while fluorescent labels mainly aid imaging. Therapeutic antibodies carry radiation, toxic drugs or chemicals that stop cancer cell division."},{"text":"A digestive enzyme, growth hormone or chemical that speeds up cell growth and division.","correct":false,"explanation":"Growth hormones and division-promoting chemicals would worsen cancer rather than treat it. Antibodies can deliver a radioactive substance, toxic drug or division-stopping chemical."},{"text":"A harmless nutrient, oxygen supply or chemical that supports cell growth and division.","correct":false,"explanation":"Supplying nutrients or oxygen would support cancer cells rather than kill them. Targeted antibodies instead carry radioactive, toxic or growth-inhibiting substances."}]},{"id":"d78d68fd-a403-4c31-86a0-f7a08fbac139","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why can targeted antibodies reduce damage to healthy cells during cancer treatment?","back":"They bind only to cancer cells, delivering the treatment directly to them.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They bind only to cancer cells, delivering the treatment directly to them.","correct":true,"explanation":"The antibodies recognise antigens found on the cancer cells, so the attached drug or radioactive substance is delivered mainly to those cells rather than healthy tissue."},{"text":"They bind only to healthy cells, preventing the treatment from entering cancer cells.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the targeting mechanism: binding healthy cells would expose them to harm. The antibodies bind cancer-cell antigens and deliver the treatment directly to the cancer cells."},{"text":"They bind to all body cells, spreading the treatment evenly between them.","correct":false,"explanation":"Spreading treatment across all cells would increase damage to healthy tissue. Targeted antibodies recognise specific antigens on cancer cells and deliver treatment directly to them."},{"text":"They bind only to immune cells, causing the treatment to remain inside them.","correct":false,"explanation":"The treatment is not protected inside immune cells. Targeted antibodies bind antigens on cancer cells, concentrating the attached treatment there and reducing exposure of healthy cells."}]},{"id":"174e1185-38c1-46a3-b174-5bcf89ed676e","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How else can a monoclonal antibody stop a cancer cell growing?","back":"It can block receptors or trigger the immune system to attack the cell.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It can block receptors or trigger the immune system to attack the cell.","correct":true,"explanation":"Blocking growth-factor receptors prevents signals that stimulate cell division, while marking the cancer cell can help immune cells recognise and destroy it."},{"text":"It can activate receptors or prevent the immune system from detecting the cell.","correct":false,"explanation":"Activating growth receptors and hiding the cell from immunity could support tumour growth. Monoclonal antibodies instead block receptors or trigger an immune attack on the cell."},{"text":"It can increase mitosis or stop the immune system from attacking the cell.","correct":false,"explanation":"Increasing mitosis would make the cancer grow faster, and suppressing immune attack would protect it. Antibodies can block growth receptors or recruit the immune system."},{"text":"It can supply nutrients or trigger surrounding cells to divide around the cell.","correct":false,"explanation":"Supplying nutrients or stimulating nearby division would not inhibit cancer growth. Monoclonal antibodies work by blocking receptors or directing the immune system against the cancer cell."}]},{"id":"d5cef146-82c8-44ef-9438-82fc641df35d","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What is one advantage of monoclonal antibodies?","back":"They are very specific, so they can target one thing without affecting healthy cells.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They are very specific, so they can target one thing without affecting healthy cells.","correct":true,"explanation":"Each monoclonal antibody binds to one particular antigen, allowing treatment or detection to focus on the intended target while reducing effects on healthy cells."},{"text":"They are completely non-specific, so they can target every cell without affecting healthy cells.","correct":false,"explanation":"Non-specific binding would affect many cell types rather than spare healthy cells. Monoclonal antibodies are advantageous because they bind very specifically to one target antigen."},{"text":"They are always inexpensive, so they can be produced easily without specialist equipment.","correct":false,"explanation":"Monoclonal antibodies are generally expensive and difficult to produce, so low cost is not their advantage. Their key benefit is their very specific binding."},{"text":"They are universally harmless, so they can never cause side effects in treated patients.","correct":false,"explanation":"Specificity can reduce unwanted effects, but monoclonal antibodies can still cause side effects or immune reactions. Their advantage is targeting one antigen with limited effects on healthy cells."}]},{"id":"245b155a-a80b-484a-a59c-3ccff376b485","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why might monoclonal antibodies be useful for many different conditions?","back":"They can be produced against a huge range of antigens.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They can be produced against a huge range of antigens.","correct":true,"explanation":"Different monoclonal antibodies can be designed to bind different antigens, making them potentially useful for diagnosing or treating many diseases and other medical conditions."},{"text":"They can be produced against a single antigen in every disease.","correct":false,"explanation":"Different conditions do not all share one universal antigen. Monoclonal antibodies are versatile because separate antibodies can be produced against a huge range of different antigens."},{"text":"They can be produced without identifying any target antigen.","correct":false,"explanation":"An antigen must be identified so an antibody with a complementary binding site can be selected. Their broad usefulness comes from targeting a huge range of antigens."},{"text":"They can be produced to bind every molecule equally well.","correct":false,"explanation":"Binding every molecule would remove the specificity that makes monoclonal antibodies useful. Instead, different antibodies can be produced against a huge range of individual antigens."}]},{"id":"4f76fbba-d08c-4d5b-bf78-5ae662a12db5","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why were early monoclonal antibodies associated with unexpected side effects?","back":"They used mouse cells, which could trigger an immune response in humans.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They used mouse cells, which could trigger an immune response in humans.","correct":true,"explanation":"Early antibodies contained mouse proteins that the human immune system could recognise as foreign, causing immune reactions and other unexpected side effects."},{"text":"They used human cells, which were always recognised as foreign by the body.","correct":false,"explanation":"Human proteins are generally less likely to be recognised as foreign. The problem was that early monoclonal antibodies used mouse cells, which could provoke a human immune response."},{"text":"They used cancer cells, which caused every treated patient to develop a tumour.","correct":false,"explanation":"The side effects were not caused by antibodies transferring cancer to patients. Early antibodies were produced using mouse cells, whose proteins could trigger a human immune response."},{"text":"They used red blood cells, which prevented antibodies from binding to antigens.","correct":false,"explanation":"Red blood cells were not the source of the unexpected immune reactions. Early monoclonal antibodies used mouse cells, so humans could recognise their proteins as foreign."}]},{"id":"7cd14ec0-5705-4564-aa13-fea33d9b0a6c","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Monoclonal antibodies are not yet as widely used as hoped because they are expensive and difficult to [ ].","back":"Monoclonal antibodies are not yet as widely used as hoped because they are expensive and difficult to produce.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"produce","correct":true,"explanation":"Producing identical antibodies requires specialised hybridoma cells, controlled culture conditions and purification, making monoclonal antibody manufacture technically difficult and expensive."},{"text":"reproduce","correct":false,"explanation":"Antibodies are protein molecules and do not reproduce themselves; the hybridoma cells that make them divide. The intended difficulty is producing monoclonal antibodies at scale."},{"text":"clone","correct":false,"explanation":"Scientists clone the antibody-producing hybridoma cells, not the finished antibody molecules themselves. Monoclonal antibodies remain difficult and expensive to produce."},{"text":"culture","correct":false,"explanation":"Hybridoma cells are cultured so that they secrete antibodies, but the antibodies themselves are not cultured. The complete manufacturing process is described as difficult to produce."}]}]}],"examCountdown":{"examDate":"2027-05-11","paperLabel":"Paper 1"},"heading":"3.2.2 Uses of monoclonal antibodies","title":"3.2.2 Uses of monoclonal antibodies Flashcards","topbar":{"backHref":"/gcse/biology/aqa/flashcards"},"topicSidebar":"$L36"}]}],"topicId":"a7d228df-ef2b-55f5-b6c5-5de6d2a48fc7","walled":"$L37"}],"$L38","$L39"]