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(Biological) Flashcards","topicId":"277fd695-d0c8-522e-a9f2-afcdbe0e2445","topicSlug":"as-what-makes-a-criminal-biological","cards":[{"id":"9e110c25-170f-431b-87a0-df1128d3a64b","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"In criminal psychology, criminal behaviour is behaviour that [ ].","back":"In criminal psychology, criminal behaviour is behaviour that breaks the law.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"breaks the law","correct":true,"explanation":"Criminal behaviour is defined legally as behaviour that breaks the law, although laws may differ between societies and change over time."},{"text":"violates social norms","correct":false,"explanation":"Violating social norms describes deviance, which may be unusual or disapproved of without being illegal. Criminal behaviour specifically breaks the law."},{"text":"causes physical harm","correct":false,"explanation":"Many harmful actions are not legally prohibited, while some crimes cause no direct physical harm. Criminal behaviour is behaviour that breaks the law."},{"text":"is considered immoral","correct":false,"explanation":"Immoral behaviour concerns ethical judgement rather than legal status, and morality varies between individuals. Criminal behaviour is defined as behaviour that breaks the law."}]},{"id":"7c17a6b5-8e52-47a2-bd42-95e0f78cdd00","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Biological factors may create a [ ] to offend - an increased risk, not a [ ].","back":"Biological factors may create a predisposition to offend - an increased risk, not a guaranteed outcome.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Biological factors may create a predisposition to offend - an increased risk, not a guaranteed outcome.","correct":true,"explanation":"Biological characteristics may increase an individual’s likelihood of offending, creating a predisposition, but environmental and psychological influences mean that offending is not inevitable."},{"text":"Biological factors may create a learned response to offend - an increased risk, not a guaranteed outcome.","correct":false,"explanation":"Biological influences are better described as a predisposition, not an acquired behaviour. They increase risk without producing a guaranteed outcome because other factors also contribute."},{"text":"Biological factors may create a predisposition to offend - an increased risk, not an impossible outcome.","correct":false,"explanation":"A predisposition raises the probability of offending but does not make crime impossible. The correct contrast is between an increased risk and a guaranteed outcome."},{"text":"Biological factors may create a conscious decision to offend - an increased risk, not an inevitable instinct.","correct":false,"explanation":"Biological factors may create a predisposition rather than a conscious decision, and the resulting risk is not a guaranteed outcome because environment and experience still matter."}]},{"id":"b1681660-1f41-4fc8-a740-b91ea508e83d","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why can reduced prefrontal cortex functioning make impulsive crime more likely?","back":"It weakens impulse control, making risky/aggressive actions harder to inhibit.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It weakens impulse control, making risky/aggressive actions harder to inhibit.","correct":true,"explanation":"The prefrontal cortex supports planning, judgement and behavioural inhibition. Reduced functioning can therefore weaken impulse control, making immediate risky or aggressive responses harder to suppress."},{"text":"It strengthens impulse control, making risky/aggressive actions easier to inhibit.","correct":false,"explanation":"Reduced prefrontal functioning does not strengthen inhibition. It weakens impulse control, leaving risky or aggressive impulses more difficult to suppress before they become actions."},{"text":"It strengthens emotional learning, making risky/aggressive actions harder to forget.","correct":false,"explanation":"The prefrontal cortex primarily regulates executive control rather than producing stronger emotional learning. Reduced functioning weakens impulse control, making risky or aggressive actions harder to inhibit."},{"text":"It improves risk assessment, making risky/aggressive actions easier to justify.","correct":false,"explanation":"Reduced prefrontal activity is associated with poorer, not sharper, judgement. It weakens impulse control and makes risky or aggressive responses harder to inhibit."}]},{"id":"50d22f0b-5f97-428b-9252-4a51599cc7fd","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"The limbic system includes the [ ], linked to fear/aggression, and the [ ], linked to memory/emotional learning.","back":"The limbic system includes the amygdala, linked to fear/aggression, and the hippocampus, linked to memory/emotional learning.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The limbic system includes the amygdala, linked to fear/aggression, and the hippocampus, linked to memory/emotional learning.","correct":true,"explanation":"The amygdala is central to processing threat, fear and aggression, while the hippocampus supports memory formation and helps emotional experiences shape later learning."},{"text":"The limbic system includes the hypothalamus, linked to fear/aggression, and the hippocampus, linked to memory/emotional learning.","correct":false,"explanation":"The hypothalamus regulates functions such as hormones and homeostasis, but the limbic structure most directly associated with fear and aggression is the amygdala; the hippocampus supports memory."},{"text":"The limbic system includes the amygdala, linked to fear/aggression, and the medulla, linked to memory/emotional learning.","correct":false,"explanation":"The medulla controls essential automatic functions such as breathing and heart rate, rather than memory and emotional learning. The hippocampus performs the stated memory-related role."},{"text":"The limbic system includes the cerebellum, linked to fear/aggression, and the thalamus, linked to memory/emotional learning.","correct":false,"explanation":"The cerebellum mainly coordinates movement, while the thalamus relays sensory information. The relevant limbic structures are the amygdala for fear/aggression and hippocampus for memory/emotional learning."}]},{"id":"3e641329-da48-47a9-9543-7f1a72e179b1","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How are low serotonin levels linked to impulsive aggression?","back":"Low serotonin reduces mood regulation and inhibition.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Low serotonin reduces mood regulation and inhibition.","correct":true,"explanation":"Serotonin helps regulate mood and inhibit inappropriate responses. Low levels can weaken these regulatory processes, increasing susceptibility to impulsive and aggressive behaviour."},{"text":"Low dopamine reduces reward seeking and motivation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Dopamine is strongly involved in reward and motivation, but the proposed explanation for impulsive aggression concerns low serotonin reducing mood regulation and behavioural inhibition."},{"text":"Low adrenaline reduces physical arousal and alertness.","correct":false,"explanation":"Adrenaline is associated with physiological arousal rather than being the neurotransmitter identified in this explanation. Low serotonin is linked to poorer mood regulation and inhibition."},{"text":"Low serotonin increases mood regulation and inhibition.","correct":false,"explanation":"Low serotonin is associated with weaker rather than stronger behavioural restraint. It reduces mood regulation and inhibition, which can make impulsive aggression more likely."}]},{"id":"32fd80e3-3df4-44f5-be7c-bd4781850d34","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"High [ ] is sometimes linked to dominance and aggression, but it interacts with context, personality and social learning.","back":"High testosterone is sometimes linked to dominance and aggression, but it interacts with context, personality and social learning.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"testosterone","correct":true,"explanation":"Higher testosterone has sometimes been associated with dominance and aggression, but it does not directly determine offending because its effects depend on social and psychological factors."},{"text":"serotonin","correct":false,"explanation":"Serotonin is primarily associated with mood regulation and behavioural inhibition, with low rather than high levels linked to impulsive aggression. The hormone described is testosterone."},{"text":"cortisol","correct":false,"explanation":"Cortisol is a stress hormone and is not the hormone usually identified in this claim about high levels, dominance and aggression. The intended term is testosterone."},{"text":"oxytocin","correct":false,"explanation":"Oxytocin is commonly associated with bonding and social affiliation, although its effects are complex. Testosterone is the hormone sometimes linked to dominance and aggression."}]},{"id":"99f25ada-4970-495d-bb3c-ae1d43e276db","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why are genes not a complete explanation for offending?","back":"Genes interact with childhood experiences, peers and stress.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Genes interact with childhood experiences, peers and stress.","correct":true,"explanation":"Genetic influences operate alongside environmental factors, including childhood experiences, peer groups and stress. This gene-environment interaction means genes alone cannot fully determine offending."},{"text":"Genes determine behaviour regardless of upbringing or environment.","correct":false,"explanation":"Genes do not determine offending independently of experience. They interact with childhood experiences, peers and stress, so biological vulnerability may be strengthened or reduced by the environment."},{"text":"Genes make offending inevitable in every social environment.","correct":false,"explanation":"Treating offending as purely inherited ignores gene-environment interaction. Genes combine with childhood experiences, peers and stress rather than making criminal behaviour inevitable."},{"text":"Genes have no influence on criminal behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"Genes can influence behavioural predispositions, so it is inaccurate to say they have no role. However, they interact with childhood experiences, peers and stress rather than acting alone."}]},{"id":"fd5cd605-9c67-4eed-b145-be303f2885bb","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What would a social learning explanation of crime focus on?","back":"Imitation of rewarded criminal behaviour.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Imitation of rewarded criminal behaviour.","correct":true,"explanation":"Social learning theory proposes that people observe and imitate models, especially when those models receive rewards. Rewarded criminal behaviour is therefore more likely to be copied."},{"text":"Inheritance of genes associated with aggression.","correct":false,"explanation":"Inherited biological characteristics belong to genetic explanations, not social learning theory. A social learning account focuses on observing and imitating criminal behaviour that appears rewarded."},{"text":"Abnormalities in prefrontal cortex functioning.","correct":false,"explanation":"Brain structure is examined by biological explanations rather than social learning theory. Social learning focuses on the imitation of rewarded criminal behaviour observed in influential models."},{"text":"Expression of unconscious childhood conflicts.","correct":false,"explanation":"Unconscious conflict is associated with psychodynamic explanations, not social learning theory. Social learning instead explains crime through imitation of behaviour that models are rewarded for performing."}]},{"id":"76a13e49-3c64-4d92-8049-7f7f3cd7c354","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What was Raine et al. (1997)'s aim?","back":"To test whether murderers pleading not guilty by reason of insanity showed brain abnormalities versus controls.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"To test whether murderers pleading not guilty by reason of insanity showed brain abnormalities versus controls.","correct":true,"explanation":"Raine et al. compared the brain functioning of murderers pleading not guilty by reason of insanity with controls to investigate whether the murderer group showed characteristic brain abnormalities."},{"text":"To test whether murderers convicted of premeditated offences showed higher intelligence versus controls.","correct":false,"explanation":"The study did not investigate intelligence or focus specifically on premeditated offences. It tested whether murderers pleading not guilty by reason of insanity showed brain abnormalities compared with controls."},{"text":"To test whether prisoners receiving behavioural therapy showed reduced aggression versus controls.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses Raine et al. with a treatment-effectiveness study. Their aim was to compare brain functioning in murderers pleading not guilty by reason of insanity and controls."},{"text":"To test whether children with aggressive behaviour showed genetic abnormalities versus controls.","correct":false,"explanation":"The participants were adults rather than aggressive children, and the study examined brain activity rather than genes. It investigated brain abnormalities in murderers pleading not guilty by reason of insanity."}]},{"id":"705cdbfa-26b4-47ae-a018-725cf27ce916","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"A PET scan uses a radioactive [ ]; more active brain areas use more [ ].","back":"A PET scan uses a radioactive glucose tracer; more active brain areas use more glucose.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A PET scan uses a radioactive glucose tracer; more active brain areas use more glucose.","correct":true,"explanation":"The radioactive glucose tracer reveals regional metabolism because active neurons require more energy. Consequently, more active brain areas take up and metabolise more glucose."},{"text":"A PET scan uses a radioactive oxygen tracer; more active brain areas use more oxygen.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses PET measurement with methods that infer activity from blood oxygenation. In this study, PET used a radioactive glucose tracer, and active areas consumed more glucose."},{"text":"A PET scan uses a radioactive glucose tracer; more active brain areas use more oxygen.","correct":false,"explanation":"Although neural activity is associated with oxygen demand, the tracer used here measured glucose metabolism. More active areas therefore registered through their greater use of glucose."},{"text":"A PET scan uses a radioactive dopamine tracer; more active brain areas use more dopamine.","correct":false,"explanation":"Dopamine is a neurotransmitter, not the metabolic substance measured in this procedure. The PET scan used a radioactive glucose tracer because active brain areas consume more glucose."}]},{"id":"9774e80f-d81e-4241-a46b-163168644526","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why was Raine et al. a quasi-experiment?","back":"Murderer/control status was naturally occurring, not randomly allocated.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Murderer/control status was naturally occurring, not randomly allocated.","correct":true,"explanation":"The independent variable was a pre-existing participant characteristic: individuals were already murderers or controls. Because researchers could not randomly allocate this status, the study was a quasi-experiment."},{"text":"Murderer/control status was randomly allocated, not naturally occurring.","correct":false,"explanation":"Researchers could not ethically or practically assign participants to become murderers. Murderer or control status already existed naturally, which makes the investigation a quasi-experiment."},{"text":"Murderer/control status was directly manipulated, not naturally occurring.","correct":false,"explanation":"The researchers measured an existing difference rather than manipulating criminal status. The naturally occurring murderer and control groups are the defining reason this was a quasi-experiment."},{"text":"Murderer/control status was self-selected, not randomly allocated.","correct":false,"explanation":"Participants were not grouped according to a freely chosen experimental condition. Their murderer or control status was naturally occurring, so the independent variable was not manipulated or randomly allocated."}]},{"id":"67d15425-e02a-4156-8dce-5b15479375df","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What was Raine et al.'s matched sample?","back":"41 murderers and 41 controls, matched for age and sex.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"41 murderers and 41 controls, matched for age and sex.","correct":true,"explanation":"Raine et al. compared 41 murderers with 41 controls. Matching the groups for age and sex reduced the likelihood that these participant variables explained differences in brain activity."},{"text":"41 murderers and 41 controls, matched for IQ and ethnicity.","correct":false,"explanation":"The group sizes are accurate, but the stated matching variables are not. The 41 murderers and 41 controls were matched for age and sex."},{"text":"39 murderers and 39 controls, matched for age and sex.","correct":false,"explanation":"This is a near-miss recall error in the sample size. The matched sample contained 41 murderers and 41 controls, with matching based on age and sex."},{"text":"41 murderers and 41 controls, matched for education and income.","correct":false,"explanation":"Education and income were not the stated matching variables. Raine et al. matched the 41 murderers and 41 controls for age and sex."}]},{"id":"4c8293f5-49e6-4fff-998a-3ee103e5cc27","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why did participants complete a continuous performance task during PET scanning?","back":"To standardise what participants were doing during measurement.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"To standardise what participants were doing during measurement.","correct":true,"explanation":"Giving everyone the same continuous performance task controlled their activity during scanning. This made differences in glucose metabolism less likely to result from participants doing different things."},{"text":"To diagnose which participants had committed murder.","correct":false,"explanation":"The participants' murderer or control status was already known and was not diagnosed using the task. The task standardised their behaviour while brain activity was being measured."},{"text":"To increase the murderers’ aggression during measurement.","correct":false,"explanation":"The task was not intended to provoke aggression in the murderer group. It provided a consistent activity so all participants were doing the same thing during PET measurement."},{"text":"To measure participants’ long-term memory during measurement.","correct":false,"explanation":"A continuous performance task primarily requires sustained attention rather than testing long-term memory. Its purpose here was to standardise what every participant did during the scan."}]},{"id":"156c1223-b5d0-4440-bbad-293653030d7b","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What was the dependent variable in Raine et al.?","back":"Brain activity, measured by glucose metabolism.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Brain activity, measured by glucose metabolism.","correct":true,"explanation":"The outcome measured by the researchers was regional brain activity. PET scanning operationalised this dependent variable through levels of glucose metabolism in different brain areas."},{"text":"Aggressive behaviour, measured by criminal convictions.","correct":false,"explanation":"Criminal status defined the naturally occurring groups rather than serving as the measured outcome. The dependent variable was brain activity, operationalised through glucose metabolism during PET scanning."},{"text":"Brain structure, measured by grey matter volume.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses functional and structural brain measures. Raine et al. used PET scans to assess brain activity through glucose metabolism, not grey matter volume."},{"text":"Task performance, measured by reaction time.","correct":false,"explanation":"The continuous performance task standardised activity during scanning rather than providing the main outcome. The dependent variable was brain activity, measured through glucose metabolism."}]},{"id":"d13f6e1a-783b-468c-82da-56cb4675eee1","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Compared with controls, Raine et al.'s murderer group showed [ ] in the prefrontal cortex.","back":"Compared with controls, Raine et al.'s murderer group showed reduced activity in the prefrontal cortex.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"reduced activity","correct":true,"explanation":"The murderer group showed lower glucose metabolism in the prefrontal cortex, indicating reduced activity. This region is associated with impulse control, planning and regulation of behaviour."},{"text":"increased activity","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the direction of Raine et al.'s finding. The murderer group showed reduced prefrontal cortex activity, which may relate to weaker impulse control and behavioural regulation."},{"text":"equal activity","correct":false,"explanation":"The groups did not show the same level of prefrontal functioning. Murderers had reduced activity compared with controls, indicated by lower glucose metabolism in that region."},{"text":"reduced volume","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses brain function with brain structure. PET measured glucose metabolism and therefore showed reduced activity in the prefrontal cortex, not reduced anatomical volume."}]},{"id":"35db8ead-5066-44ee-a1c8-e252a503e1bf","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"In Raine et al., which brain connector showed reduced activity?","back":"The corpus callosum.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The corpus callosum.","correct":true,"explanation":"Raine et al. found reduced activity in the corpus callosum, the bundle of nerve fibres connecting the brain's two hemispheres and supporting communication between them."},{"text":"The medulla oblongata.","correct":false,"explanation":"The medulla regulates basic automatic functions rather than serving as the principal connector between hemispheres. Reduced activity was found in the corpus callosum."},{"text":"The reticular formation.","correct":false,"explanation":"The reticular formation is involved in arousal and alertness, not communication between the cerebral hemispheres. The brain connector showing reduced activity was the corpus callosum."},{"text":"The somatosensory cortex.","correct":false,"explanation":"The somatosensory cortex processes bodily sensations and is not the major interhemispheric connector. Raine et al. reported reduced activity in the corpus callosum."}]},{"id":"35eeb876-6c3d-4a4e-b669-e9b71dd90bd4","cardType":"basic","points":3,"front":"Which three areas showed abnormal activity patterns in Raine et al.?","back":"

Amygdala
Hippocampus
Thalamus

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Amygdala
Hippocampus
Thalamus

","correct":true,"explanation":"Raine et al. identified abnormal activity patterns in the amygdala, hippocampus and thalamus, areas associated with emotion, memory and information processing."},{"text":"

Frontal lobe
Parietal lobe
Occipital lobe

","correct":false,"explanation":"These are major brain regions, but they were not the three areas identified in this finding. The study reported abnormalities in the amygdala, hippocampus and thalamus."},{"text":"

Hypothalamus
Cerebellum
Medulla

","correct":false,"explanation":"These structures can influence bodily regulation or movement, making them tempting alternatives, but Raine et al. found abnormal activity in the amygdala, hippocampus and thalamus."},{"text":"

Corpus callosum
Pons
Spinal cord

","correct":false,"explanation":"This combination includes structures involved in communication or basic functions, but it does not match the study’s findings. The abnormal activity occurred in the amygdala, hippocampus and thalamus."}]},{"id":"d8ede4aa-bc85-4096-92fd-55108a4c5a54","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What conclusion did Raine et al. draw about NGRI murderers?","back":"Some had brain abnormalities in areas linked to self-control, emotion and aggression.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Some had brain abnormalities in areas linked to self-control, emotion and aggression.","correct":true,"explanation":"Raine et al. concluded that some NGRI murderers showed abnormalities in brain areas associated with regulating self-control, emotion and aggression, supporting a biological contribution to criminal behaviour."},{"text":"Some had brain abnormalities in areas linked to memory, language and intelligence.","correct":false,"explanation":"Memory, language and intelligence are relevant brain functions, but they were not the central conclusion. The findings concerned areas linked to self-control, emotion and aggression."},{"text":"All had brain abnormalities in areas linked to self-control, emotion and aggression.","correct":false,"explanation":"The study did not find abnormalities in every NGRI murderer, so this overgeneralises the conclusion. It stated that some participants showed abnormalities in these linked areas."},{"text":"Some had brain abnormalities in areas linked to planning, vision and balance.","correct":false,"explanation":"These functions may involve different brain systems, but they do not capture Raine et al.’s conclusion. The relevant links were with self-control, emotion and aggression."}]},{"id":"cb0df72e-0af2-43e0-a47a-e089025d3552","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why can Raine et al. not prove brain abnormalities caused murder?","back":"It was a quasi-experiment showing correlation, not cause.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It was a quasi-experiment showing correlation, not cause.","correct":true,"explanation":"Participants were not randomly assigned to have brain abnormalities or commit murder, so the study could identify an association but could not establish that abnormalities caused the behaviour."},{"text":"It was a laboratory experiment showing correlation, not cause.","correct":false,"explanation":"Calling it a laboratory experiment is inaccurate because the researchers did not manipulate the suspected cause or randomly assign participants. It was a quasi-experiment showing correlation, not causation."},{"text":"It was a quasi-experiment showing cause, not correlation.","correct":false,"explanation":"A quasi-experiment can reveal relationships between naturally occurring variables, but without experimental control it cannot prove causation. The study therefore showed correlation rather than cause."},{"text":"It was a correlational study showing cause, not correlation.","correct":false,"explanation":"The design did show correlation, but it could not demonstrate cause. Natural differences in brain activity and criminal history may reflect other variables or effects of offending."}]},{"id":"96d9f684-a253-416a-b0a6-8b1c5c3ef435","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why did PET scans strengthen Raine et al.?","back":"They provided objective biological data, not just self-report.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They provided objective biological data, not just self-report.","correct":true,"explanation":"PET scans measured patterns of brain activity directly, giving an objective biological measure. This reduced reliance on participants’ memories, interpretations or willingness to report accurately."},{"text":"They provided subjective biological data, not just self-report.","correct":false,"explanation":"PET scans produce physiological measurements rather than personal opinions, so the data are considered objective. The strength came from adding objective biological evidence to the research."},{"text":"They provided objective psychological data, not just self-report.","correct":false,"explanation":"PET scans measure biological activity in the brain, not psychological responses directly. Their value was providing objective biological data rather than relying solely on self-report."},{"text":"They provided objective behavioural data, not just self-report.","correct":false,"explanation":"PET scans do not record behaviour itself; they record brain activity. Their methodological advantage was objective biological measurement, which complemented rather than replaced behavioural evidence."}]},{"id":"09000bfa-3879-4afc-a794-042e24c0d2c6","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why does Raine et al. have limited population validity?","back":"NGRI murderers do not represent all offenders or crimes.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"NGRI murderers do not represent all offenders or crimes.","correct":true,"explanation":"The sample consisted specifically of people found not guilty by reason of insanity after murder. Their unusual legal and criminal characteristics limit generalisation to other offenders and offences."},{"text":"NGRI murderers do not represent all mental illnesses or treatments.","correct":false,"explanation":"The concern is mainly about generalising from a narrow offender group to other offenders and crimes, not about representing every mental illness or treatment. The sample limits population validity."},{"text":"NGRI offenders do not represent all murderers or crimes.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the direction of the limitation: the participants were a specific subgroup of murderers, so they may not represent all offenders or types of crime."},{"text":"NGRI murderers do not represent all biological explanations or studies.","correct":false,"explanation":"Population validity concerns whether findings generalise to people and situations beyond the sample, rather than whether one study represents all biological explanations. Other offenders and crimes remain underrepresented."}]},{"id":"8b83c745-ac38-451b-82dd-904771139331","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why is Raine et al. socially sensitive?","back":"Brain differences may lead to stigma, discrimination and unfair dangerousness labels.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Brain differences may lead to stigma, discrimination and unfair dangerousness labels.","correct":true,"explanation":"Biological findings can be misinterpreted as proof that someone is inherently dangerous. This may encourage stigma, discrimination and unfair labelling, even when abnormalities only show an association."},{"text":"Brain differences may lead to better treatment, rehabilitation and fairer sentencing decisions.","correct":false,"explanation":"These could be possible benefits of careful application, but they do not describe the ethical risk highlighted here. The concern is stigma, discrimination and unfair judgements of dangerousness."},{"text":"Brain differences may lead to greater privacy, confidentiality and informed consent.","correct":false,"explanation":"Privacy, confidentiality and consent are ethical safeguards, not the social harm identified by this research. The sensitive issue is that findings may produce stigma, discrimination and dangerousness labels."},{"text":"Brain differences may lead to more accurate diagnosis, prevention and victim support.","correct":false,"explanation":"These are potential applications rather than the main social sensitivity. Biological differences might instead be used to stigmatise people or make unfair assumptions about their dangerousness."}]},{"id":"945b085b-78dd-4bff-b382-7cf5b0fd892c","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors may reduce impulsive aggression by increasing available [ ] in the brain.","back":"Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors may reduce impulsive aggression by increasing available serotonin in the brain.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"serotonin","correct":true,"explanation":"Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors block serotonin reuptake, leaving more serotonin available in synapses. Increased serotonin activity is associated with improved impulse control and reduced impulsive aggression."},{"text":"dopamine","correct":false,"explanation":"Dopamine is involved in reward and motivation, so it may seem relevant to aggression, but SSRIs primarily increase available serotonin. Serotonin is the neurotransmitter named in this intervention."},{"text":"adrenaline","correct":false,"explanation":"Adrenaline supports the fight-or-flight response and can increase arousal, but SSRIs do not work by increasing it. They reduce reuptake of serotonin, making more available in the brain."},{"text":"GABA","correct":false,"explanation":"GABA is an inhibitory neurotransmitter associated with reducing neural activity, but it is not the target increased by SSRIs. The relevant neurotransmitter is serotonin."}]},{"id":"940c83dd-6f89-4d71-a994-b00153654473","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What is the biological rationale for nutritional interventions?","back":"Brain functioning depends on nutrients affecting mood, concentration and impulse control.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Brain functioning depends on nutrients affecting mood, concentration and impulse control.","correct":true,"explanation":"Nutrients provide materials and energy needed for neurotransmitter production and normal brain activity. This gives nutritional interventions a biological rationale for influencing mood, concentration and impulse control."},{"text":"Brain functioning depends on hormones affecting mood, concentration and impulse control.","correct":false,"explanation":"Hormones can influence behaviour, but nutritional interventions primarily alter the nutrients available for brain activity and neurotransmitter production. The biological rationale therefore centres on nutrients."},{"text":"Brain functioning depends on enzymes affecting mood, concentration and impulse control.","correct":false,"explanation":"Enzymes support chemical reactions in the body, but they are not the main category supplied by nutritional interventions in this explanation. The relevant factor is nutrients."},{"text":"Brain functioning depends on antibodies affecting mood, concentration and impulse control.","correct":false,"explanation":"Antibodies are immune proteins and are not the intended basis for nutritional interventions. Nutrients support energy use and neurotransmitter production involved in these psychological functions."}]},{"id":"a5799674-c063-47c4-99b9-316f9c80e59e","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What is the interactionist view of biological crime explanations?","back":"Biology and environment work together.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Biology and environment work together.","correct":true,"explanation":"The interactionist view argues that biological predispositions combine with environmental experiences to influence criminal behaviour, rather than either type of factor acting as a complete explanation alone."},{"text":"Biology and environment work independently.","correct":false,"explanation":"Treating inherited characteristics and upbringing as unrelated misses their interaction. The interactionist view holds that biology and environment work together to influence criminal behaviour."},{"text":"Biology alone determines criminality.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reflects biological determinism, which attributes criminality solely to inherited or physiological factors. The interactionist view instead proposes that biology and environment work together."},{"text":"Environment alone determines criminality.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reflects environmental determinism, which overlooks biological predispositions. The interactionist view argues that biological factors and environmental experiences jointly contribute to criminal behaviour."}]}]}],"examCountdown":{"examDate":"2027-05-10","paperLabel":"Paper 1"},"heading":"What makes a criminal? (Biological)","title":"What makes a criminal? (Biological) Flashcards","topbar":{"backHref":"/as-level/psychology/ocr/flashcards"},"topicSidebar":"$L38"}]}],"topicId":"277fd695-d0c8-522e-a9f2-afcdbe0e2445","walled":"$L39"}],"$L3a","$L3b"]