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participants’ speed estimates, demonstrating that leading wording can alter what eyewitnesses report about an event."},{"text":"Repeated viewing can prevent inaccurate eyewitness reports.","correct":false,"explanation":"The study manipulated the wording of questions rather than the number of viewings. It showed that leading wording can change eyewitness reports."},{"text":"Neutral wording can make eyewitness reports more detailed.","correct":false,"explanation":"The key finding concerned leading, not neutral, wording. Different verbs produced different speed estimates, showing that leading wording can change eyewitness reports."},{"text":"Question length can determine whether eyewitness reports are accurate.","correct":false,"explanation":"Question length was not the manipulated variable. Loftus and Palmer varied particular verbs and found that leading wording can change eyewitness reports."}]},{"id":"84110239-4065-4467-b6e3-5cee1e7a8025","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Loftus and Palmer challenged memory as a video recording: recall is [ ], using the original event plus [ ].","back":"Loftus and Palmer challenged memory as a video recording: recall is reconstructive, using the original event plus later information.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Loftus and Palmer challenged memory as a video recording: recall is reconstructive, using the original event plus later information.","correct":true,"explanation":"Recall is rebuilt from information encoded during the event and information received afterwards, so memory can be altered rather than replayed exactly."},{"text":"Loftus and Palmer challenged memory as a video recording: recall is reproductive, using the original event plus later information.","correct":false,"explanation":"Calling recall reproductive suggests that memory accurately reproduces the event. Loftus and Palmer concluded that recall is reconstructive because later information can become incorporated."},{"text":"Loftus and Palmer challenged memory as a video recording: recall is reconstructive, using the original event plus no later information.","correct":false,"explanation":"This excludes the post-event information central to the explanation. Reconstructive recall combines details from the original event with later information, such as leading wording."},{"text":"Loftus and Palmer challenged memory as a video recording: recall is photographic, using the original event plus later information.","correct":false,"explanation":"Photographic recall implies a fixed, accurate image, which is the video-recording view the research challenged. Recall is reconstructive and incorporates later information."}]},{"id":"7234a0da-dbbf-4bbe-a519-0be744b0c087","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"A [ ] suggests an answer or includes information that may influence the person’s [ ].","back":"A leading question suggests an answer or includes information that may influence the person’s response.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A leading question suggests an answer or includes information that may influence the person’s response.","correct":true,"explanation":"A leading question contains wording or assumptions that guide the respondent towards a particular answer, potentially changing the response they give."},{"text":"A neutral question suggests an answer or includes information that may influence the person’s response.","correct":false,"explanation":"A neutral question is designed not to direct the respondent towards an answer. A leading question suggests an answer and may influence the person’s response."},{"text":"A closed question suggests an answer or includes information that may influence the person’s response.","correct":false,"explanation":"A closed question restricts the available response format but does not necessarily suggest which answer to choose. The definition given is for a leading question."},{"text":"A leading question suggests an answer or includes information that may influence the person’s sensory register.","correct":false,"explanation":"The sensory register briefly holds incoming sensory information and is not the person’s given answer. A leading question may influence the person’s response."}]},{"id":"a75c2de0-8657-47a9-b629-bcca4fb095d6","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why is 'smashed' more leading than 'contacted'?","back":"It implies a more severe collision.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It implies a more severe collision.","correct":true,"explanation":"The verb “smashed” conveys greater force and damage than “contacted”, encouraging participants to infer a more severe collision and estimate a higher speed."},{"text":"It implies a less severe collision.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the connotations of the verbs. “Smashed” suggests greater force and damage, so it implies a more severe collision than “contacted”."},{"text":"It implies a more accurate speed estimate.","correct":false,"explanation":"The word does not make estimates more accurate; it biases them upwards through its connotations. “Smashed” implies a more severe collision."},{"text":"It implies a longer period of observation.","correct":false,"explanation":"The verb gives no information about how long participants watched the collision. Its leading effect comes from implying a more severe collision."}]},{"id":"1c868f88-9877-43f2-a011-af60c88b4315","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Question wording after an event is [ ] and can influence [ ].","back":"Question wording after an event is post-event information and can influence memory reconstruction.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Question wording after an event is post-event information and can influence memory reconstruction.","correct":true,"explanation":"Wording encountered after the witnessed event is post-event information. It can become integrated with the original memory when that memory is reconstructed during recall."},{"text":"Question wording after an event is event information and can influence memory reconstruction.","correct":false,"explanation":"Event information comes from the event itself, whereas the wording is presented afterwards. It is post-event information and can influence memory reconstruction."},{"text":"Question wording after an event is post-event information and can influence visual perception.","correct":false,"explanation":"Later wording cannot change the visual perception that occurred while the event was watched. It is post-event information that can influence memory reconstruction."},{"text":"Question wording after an event is pre-event information and can influence memory encoding.","correct":false,"explanation":"The wording is supplied after the event, not before it, so it cannot alter the event’s original encoding. It is post-event information affecting memory reconstruction."}]},{"id":"9e356aee-bf6d-4fbf-99bd-8e67e2ca9e53","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Loftus and Palmer is in the [ ] because it studies [ ].","back":"Loftus and Palmer is in the Cognitive area because it studies memory.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Loftus and Palmer is in the Cognitive area because it studies memory.","correct":true,"explanation":"The Cognitive area investigates internal mental processes. Loftus and Palmer examined how information is remembered and reconstructed, so the study concerns memory."},{"text":"Loftus and Palmer is in the Social area because it studies conformity.","correct":false,"explanation":"The research did not examine conformity to group pressure, despite an experimenter asking the questions. It belongs to the Cognitive area because it studies memory."},{"text":"Loftus and Palmer is in the Biological area because it studies brain structure.","correct":false,"explanation":"No biological measures or brain structures were investigated. The study examined the mental process of memory, placing it within the Cognitive area."},{"text":"Loftus and Palmer is in the Developmental area because it studies attachment.","correct":false,"explanation":"The study did not investigate age-related change or attachment relationships. It belongs to the Cognitive area because it examines eyewitness memory."}]},{"id":"0bcf3670-bf0b-47f4-8dd5-2d6d1a322120","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Experiment 1 used [ ] students; Experiment 2 used [ ] students.","back":"Experiment 1 used 45 students; Experiment 2 used 150 students.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Experiment 1 used 45 students; Experiment 2 used 150 students.","correct":true,"explanation":"The first experiment involved 45 students who estimated speed, while the second used a larger sample of 150 students to investigate reports of broken glass."},{"text":"Experiment 1 used 150 students; Experiment 2 used 45 students.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the sample sizes between the two experiments. Experiment 1 used 45 students, whereas Experiment 2 used 150 students."},{"text":"Experiment 1 used 45 students; Experiment 2 used 50 students.","correct":false,"explanation":"The first sample size is correct, but the second is reduced by confusing the 150 participants with 50. Experiment 2 used 150 students."},{"text":"Experiment 1 used 150 students; Experiment 2 used 150 students.","correct":false,"explanation":"This incorrectly applies Experiment 2’s larger sample size to both studies. Experiment 1 used 45 students and Experiment 2 used 150 students."}]},{"id":"1bec4f1e-c52d-4f13-9a8e-d7f604f8c720","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What was the aim of Experiment 1?","back":"To test whether question wording affected speed estimates.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"To test whether question wording affected speed estimates.","correct":true,"explanation":"Experiment 1 varied the verb in the critical question and measured participants’ estimated speeds, testing whether question wording influenced those estimates."},{"text":"To test whether participant age affected speed estimates.","correct":false,"explanation":"Age was not manipulated as the independent variable. Experiment 1 changed the verb used in the question to test whether question wording affected speed estimates."},{"text":"To test whether film length affected speed estimates.","correct":false,"explanation":"The study did not systematically vary film length to test its effect. Experiment 1 manipulated question wording and measured the resulting speed estimates."},{"text":"To test whether vehicle damage affected speed estimates.","correct":false,"explanation":"Vehicle damage was not the manipulated variable in Experiment 1. The researchers varied question wording to see whether it affected participants’ speed estimates."}]},{"id":"c1f3ad3c-2d89-445e-b124-13aabe3d01e6","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why was Experiment 1 an independent measures design?","back":"Each participant experienced one verb condition.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Each participant experienced one verb condition.","correct":true,"explanation":"Independent measures means each participant takes part in only one condition. Each student therefore encountered one critical verb and could not compare or be influenced by the others."},{"text":"Each participant experienced all five verb conditions.","correct":false,"explanation":"Experiencing every verb condition would make this a repeated measures design and could create order effects. It was independent measures because each participant experienced only one verb condition."},{"text":"Each participant experienced one unique film condition.","correct":false,"explanation":"Watching one film does not establish an independent measures design because conditions are defined by the manipulated verb. Each participant experienced one verb condition, not a unique film condition."},{"text":"Each participant answered one speed question.","correct":false,"explanation":"Answering one speed question describes the task but not how participants were allocated across conditions. The design was independent measures because each participant experienced only one verb condition."}]},{"id":"b0ffa041-69a8-41a5-b9de-8c2f0cdc470c","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"In Experiment 1, the IV was the [ ] in the speed question; the DV was [ ].","back":"In Experiment 1, the IV was the verb in the speed question; the DV was estimated speed in mph.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"In Experiment 1, the IV was the verb in the speed question; the DV was estimated speed in mph.","correct":true,"explanation":"The researchers manipulated the verb used in the critical speed question and measured participants’ numerical speed estimates in miles per hour."},{"text":"In Experiment 1, the IV was the film in the speed question; the DV was verb selected by participants.","correct":false,"explanation":"The film was standardised rather than manipulated, and the verb was not an outcome measure. The IV was the verb, while the DV was estimated speed in mph."},{"text":"In Experiment 1, the IV was the estimated speed in the speed question; the DV was verb used in the question.","correct":false,"explanation":"The verb is mistakenly treated as the measured outcome here. Researchers manipulated the verb in the question and measured the resulting estimated speed in mph."},{"text":"In Experiment 1, the IV was the verb in the speed question; the DV was broken-glass report.","correct":false,"explanation":"Broken-glass reports were measured in Experiment 2, not Experiment 1. Experiment 1 measured estimated speed in mph after manipulating the verb in the speed question."}]},{"id":"891b2994-2811-4df9-9c3f-74d7a6ffe582","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"In Experiment 1, [ ] gave the highest mean speed (40.8 mph), while [ ] gave the lowest (31.8 mph).","back":"In Experiment 1, smashed gave the highest mean speed (40.8 mph), while contacted gave the lowest (31.8 mph).","mcqOptions":[{"text":"In Experiment 1, smashed gave the highest mean speed (40.8 mph), while contacted gave the lowest (31.8 mph).","correct":true,"explanation":"The strongest verb, “smashed”, produced the largest mean estimate of 40.8 mph, whereas the mildest verb, “contacted”, produced the smallest mean of 31.8 mph."},{"text":"In Experiment 1, contacted gave the highest mean speed (40.8 mph), while smashed gave the lowest (31.8 mph).","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the observed relationship between verb intensity and estimated speed. “Smashed” produced the highest mean of 40.8 mph and “contacted” the lowest mean of 31.8 mph."},{"text":"In Experiment 1, hit gave the highest mean speed (40.8 mph), while contacted gave the lowest (31.8 mph).","correct":false,"explanation":"“Hit” was an intermediate condition and did not produce the highest mean estimate. The highest mean followed “smashed”, while “contacted” produced the lowest."},{"text":"In Experiment 1, smashed gave the highest mean speed (40.8 mph), while collided gave the lowest (31.8 mph).","correct":false,"explanation":"“Collided” did not produce the lowest mean because it was stronger than “contacted”. The correct extremes were “smashed” at 40.8 mph and “contacted” at 31.8 mph."}]},{"id":"ec64d0a4-3055-4484-9a9b-af70a6caeffb","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"How much faster was 'smashed' than 'contacted' in Experiment 1?","back":"9.0 mph.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"9.0 mph.","correct":true,"explanation":"Subtracting the “contacted” mean from the “smashed” mean gives $40.8 - 31.8 = 9.0$ mph, so the difference was 9.0 mph."},{"text":"8.0 mph.","correct":false,"explanation":"This results from subtracting 31.8 from 40.8 incorrectly. The correct difference is $40.8 - 31.8 = 9.0$ mph."},{"text":"72.6 mph.","correct":false,"explanation":"This is an addition error rather than the difference between the two means. Subtracting 31.8 mph from 40.8 mph gives 9.0 mph."},{"text":"40.8 mph.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses the requested difference with the mean for the “smashed” condition itself. The difference between 40.8 mph and 31.8 mph is 9.0 mph."}]},{"id":"aa4515f5-36eb-4dc8-a620-2ace7e8f9c55","cardType":"basic","points":3,"front":"How did the two explanations for Experiment 1 differ?","back":"

Response bias: verb changed the answer given.
Memory reconstruction: verb altered the remembered event.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Response bias: verb changed the answer given.
Memory reconstruction: verb altered the remembered event.

","correct":true,"explanation":"Response bias proposes that wording merely influenced the estimate participants reported. Memory reconstruction instead proposes that the verb became integrated into and altered their memory of the collision."},{"text":"

Response bias: verb altered the remembered event.
Memory reconstruction: verb changed the answer given.

","correct":false,"explanation":"The two explanations have been reversed. Response bias concerns a change in the reported answer, whereas memory reconstruction concerns an actual alteration of the remembered event."},{"text":"

Response bias: verb altered the remembered event.
Memory reconstruction: verb preserved the remembered event.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Response bias does not claim that the event memory changed, and memory reconstruction is not simply accurate recall. The former changes the answer; the latter alters the remembered event."},{"text":"

Response bias: film changed the answer given.
Memory reconstruction: film altered the remembered event.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Neither explanation depends on participants seeing different films because the footage was standardised. Response bias concerns reported answers, while memory reconstruction concerns alteration of the remembered event."}]},{"id":"51a66b7b-050c-44ba-93ff-5d6dbd207197","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why was Experiment 2 needed after Experiment 1?","back":"To test if wording affected later memory, not just responses.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"To test if wording affected later memory, not just responses.","correct":true,"explanation":"Experiment 1 could not distinguish a temporary response bias from a genuine memory change. Experiment 2 tested whether wording influenced participants’ memory when questioned again one week later."},{"text":"To test if wording affected immediate estimates, not later memory.","correct":false,"explanation":"Experiment 1 had already shown that wording influenced immediate speed estimates. Experiment 2 was needed to determine whether wording also affected later memory, not merely immediate responses."},{"text":"To test if films affected later memory, not just responses.","correct":false,"explanation":"The second experiment did not primarily test whether the films differed, as participants viewed standardised footage. It tested whether question wording affected later memory rather than only responses."},{"text":"To test if wording affected different speed estimates, not later memory.","correct":false,"explanation":"Experiment 2 was not designed merely to replicate the speed difference with new verbs. Its purpose was to test whether wording produced a lasting reconstruction of memory."}]},{"id":"a7cccd0c-d965-49ec-8068-0d126db400fb","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which question conditions were used in Experiment 2?","back":"Smashed, hit, and control.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Smashed, hit, and control.","correct":true,"explanation":"Participants were asked the critical question using either “smashed” or “hit”, while the control group was not asked about speed at that stage."},{"text":"Smashed, contacted, and control.","correct":false,"explanation":"“Contacted” appeared in Experiment 1 but was not one of Experiment 2’s critical conditions. Experiment 2 compared “smashed”, “hit”, and a control condition."},{"text":"Collided, contacted, and control.","correct":false,"explanation":"“Collided” and “contacted” were verb conditions in Experiment 1, not Experiment 2. The later experiment used “smashed”, “hit”, and a control group."},{"text":"Smashed, hit, and bumped.","correct":false,"explanation":"There was no “bumped” condition, and omitting the control overlooks the baseline comparison. Experiment 2 used “smashed”, “hit”, and control conditions."}]},{"id":"d4bbe10c-9470-4ade-aa1f-dcd264890d58","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What was the dependent variable in Experiment 2?","back":"A broken-glass report one week later.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A broken-glass report one week later.","correct":true,"explanation":"One week after viewing the collision, participants answered whether they had seen broken glass. Their yes-or-no report was the dependent variable, although no broken glass appeared."},{"text":"An estimated-speed report one week later.","correct":false,"explanation":"Speed estimates were collected during the initial session, not as the key dependent variable one week later. Experiment 2 measured the later broken-glass report."},{"text":"A broken-glass report immediately afterwards.","correct":false,"explanation":"This uses the correct measure but the wrong timing. Participants reported whether they had seen broken glass one week after the film, not immediately afterwards."},{"text":"A critical-verb report one week later.","correct":false,"explanation":"Participants were not tested on their memory of the verb itself. The dependent variable was whether they reported seeing broken glass one week later."}]},{"id":"8353f29b-b1ee-480e-9250-d081791feb6a","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What crucial object was absent from the Experiment 2 film?","back":"Broken glass.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Broken glass.","correct":true,"explanation":"No broken glass appeared in the film, so later reports of seeing it demonstrated that the wording of the question could influence eyewitness memory."},{"text":"The car crash.","correct":false,"explanation":"The collision itself was clearly visible in the film. The crucial absent object was broken glass, which some participants later reported after receiving a leading question."},{"text":"A damaged car.","correct":false,"explanation":"The film included vehicles involved in a collision, so a damaged car was not the critical missing detail. Broken glass was entirely absent from the footage."},{"text":"A traffic light.","correct":false,"explanation":"A traffic light was not the misleading detail tested in Experiment 2. The researchers specifically measured whether participants falsely recalled broken glass that never appeared."}]},{"id":"8f950312-73d9-4dbc-8c6a-2196f4df82b2","cardType":"basic","points":3,"front":"What were the broken-glass 'yes' percentages in Experiment 2?","back":"

Smashed: 32%
Hit: 14%
Control: 12%

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Smashed: 32%
Hit: 14%
Control: 12%

","correct":true,"explanation":"The smashed group produced the highest false-recall rate at 32%, compared with 14% for hit and 12% for the control group, supporting an effect of leading wording."},{"text":"

Smashed: 12%
Hit: 14%
Control: 32%

","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the main pattern by assigning the lowest percentage to the strongest verb. The correct rates were 32% for smashed, 14% for hit and 12% for control."},{"text":"

Smashed: 14%
Hit: 32%
Control: 12%

","correct":false,"explanation":"This incorrectly treats the hit group as producing the most false memories. The smashed wording had the largest effect: 32%, compared with 14% for hit and 12% for control."},{"text":"

Smashed: 14%
Hit: 12%
Control: 14%

","correct":false,"explanation":"These figures wrongly make all three conditions nearly equal, overlooking the pronounced effect of smashed. The recorded percentages were 32% for smashed, 14% for hit and 12% for control."}]},{"id":"d0cdc5b8-bcdc-4c5e-95a6-2c4e87a2a59f","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What did Experiment 2 support about post-event information?","back":"It can alter memory, not just wording of responses.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It can alter memory, not just wording of responses.","correct":true,"explanation":"Participants falsely recalled broken glass that was not present, indicating that post-event wording can reconstruct or alter memory rather than merely affect how an answer is expressed."},{"text":"It can alter wording, not the content of memories.","correct":false,"explanation":"Experiment 2 did not show that post-event information only changes expression. False reports of nonexistent broken glass supported the stronger conclusion that it can alter memory itself."},{"text":"It can preserve memory, despite misleading questions.","correct":false,"explanation":"The results contradict the idea that memory remains fully accurate after misleading information. Reports of absent broken glass showed that post-event wording can alter remembered details."},{"text":"It can improve recall, not create false details.","correct":false,"explanation":"Post-event information did not simply improve retrieval of an existing detail because the glass never appeared. The findings instead suggest that misleading wording can alter memory."}]},{"id":"a1f32cfd-0e8a-439f-abca-7154766abe82","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why did standardisation strengthen the study?","back":"Same clips and questions improved reliability.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Same clips and questions improved reliability.","correct":true,"explanation":"Using identical films and question procedures reduced variation between participants and made the study easier to replicate, increasing the consistency and reliability of its findings."},{"text":"Same clips and questions improved ecological validity.","correct":false,"explanation":"Standardisation does not make an artificial film-viewing task more realistic. It improves reliability by ensuring participants receive the same clips and questions under consistent conditions."},{"text":"Same clips and questions improved population validity.","correct":false,"explanation":"Using identical materials does not ensure that the student sample represents the wider population. It strengthens reliability by making the procedure consistent and replicable."},{"text":"Same clips and questions prevented demand characteristics.","correct":false,"explanation":"Standardisation cannot guarantee that participants will not infer the study’s purpose. Its main benefit is improved reliability through consistent clips, questions and procedures."}]},{"id":"6650a4d1-8c87-4c7c-90ab-04d5a575ff3a","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Watching film clips may reduce [ ]; controlled verb manipulation improves [ ].","back":"Watching film clips may reduce ecological validity; controlled verb manipulation improves internal validity.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Watching film clips may reduce ecological validity; controlled verb manipulation improves internal validity.","correct":true,"explanation":"Film clips are less realistic than witnessing a genuine collision, reducing ecological validity. Precise control over the critical verb isolates its effect, improving internal validity."},{"text":"Watching film clips may reduce reliability; controlled verb manipulation improves population validity.","correct":false,"explanation":"Film clips mainly create concerns about realism rather than consistency, so ecological validity is reduced. Experimental control improves internal validity, not population validity."},{"text":"Watching film clips may reduce internal validity; controlled verb manipulation improves ecological validity.","correct":false,"explanation":"Watching an artificial clip reduces ecological validity, not internal validity. Controlling the verb helps establish cause and effect, so it improves internal validity rather than ecological validity."},{"text":"Watching film clips may reduce population validity; controlled verb manipulation improves reliability.","correct":false,"explanation":"Using film clips does not specifically reduce population validity, which concerns the representativeness of participants. Controlled manipulation strengthens internal validity, not reliability alone."}]},{"id":"5e3980d3-14cf-4780-b0dc-e90bdb1d54e5","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why does the student sample limit generalisability?","back":"Students may not represent all eyewitnesses or older drivers.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Students may not represent all eyewitnesses or older drivers.","correct":true,"explanation":"Students form a narrow age and experience group, so their memory and driving knowledge may differ from those of older drivers and eyewitnesses in the wider population."},{"text":"Researchers may not represent all eyewitnesses or older drivers.","correct":false,"explanation":"Researchers being unrepresentative would concern researcher characteristics, not the study’s sample. Generalisability is limited because the student participants may not represent all eyewitnesses or older drivers."},{"text":"Police officers may not represent all eyewitnesses or older drivers.","correct":false,"explanation":"Police officers were not the participant group whose representativeness was at issue. The limitation arose because students may differ from the broader population of eyewitnesses and older drivers."},{"text":"Older drivers may not represent all eyewitnesses or student participants.","correct":false,"explanation":"Older drivers were part of the wider population to which the findings might be applied, not the narrow sample used. The student sample may not represent them."}]},{"id":"9bcf03c9-4541-410a-b9af-2597cc7ee101","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How could demand characteristics affect speed estimates?","back":"Participants may guess the aim and adjust estimates.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Participants may guess the aim and adjust estimates.","correct":true,"explanation":"Participants who inferred that stronger verbs were expected to produce higher speeds might consciously or unconsciously change their estimates to match the perceived hypothesis."},{"text":"Participants may guess the aim and forget the film.","correct":false,"explanation":"Guessing the aim would not necessarily make participants forget the footage. Demand characteristics occur when they alter their responses, such as adjusting estimates to fit expectations."},{"text":"Participants may guess the aim and change the verb.","correct":false,"explanation":"Demand characteristics concern participants changing behaviour in response to perceived expectations, not researchers altering conditions. Participants might guess the aim and adjust their speed estimates."},{"text":"Participants may guess the aim and improve accuracy.","correct":false,"explanation":"Inferring the hypothesis would more likely influence the reported estimate than improve objective accuracy. Participants may adjust estimates to conform to what they think researchers expect."}]},{"id":"e5a2f760-d9ec-4944-be48-a7cb613928a6","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What practical use did Loftus and Palmer have?","back":"It highlighted leading-question risks in police interviews and courts.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It highlighted leading-question risks in police interviews and courts.","correct":true,"explanation":"The research showed that subtle wording can distort eyewitness reports, highlighting why police and legal professionals should avoid leading questions during interviews and testimony."},{"text":"It confirmed eyewitness accuracy in police interviews and courts.","correct":false,"explanation":"The study did not show that eyewitness accounts are always accurate. It demonstrated that leading wording can distort memory, creating risks in police interviews and courts."},{"text":"It supported forceful questioning in police interviews and courts.","correct":false,"explanation":"Loftus and Palmer did not advocate forceful questioning. Their findings highlighted the danger of leading questions and supported using neutral wording in police and courtroom settings."},{"text":"It highlighted repeated-question benefits in police interviews and courts.","correct":false,"explanation":"The research did not establish that repeated questioning improves recall; additional misleading information may instead distort it. Its practical value was exposing leading-question risks."}]},{"id":"178161aa-5961-422c-a73a-acf4e0bfdff6","cardType":"basic","points":3,"front":"How does Loftus and Palmer differ from Grant et al.?","back":"

Loftus and Palmer: leading questions distort eyewitness memory.
Grant et al.: matching context improves retrieval.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Loftus and Palmer: leading questions distort eyewitness memory.
Grant et al.: matching context improves retrieval.

","correct":true,"explanation":"Loftus and Palmer demonstrated that post-event wording can alter eyewitness memory, whereas Grant et al. demonstrated context-dependent memory, where recall improves when learning and retrieval environments match."},{"text":"

Loftus and Palmer: matching context improves eyewitness retrieval.
Grant et al.: leading questions distort memory.

","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the studies. Loftus and Palmer investigated how leading questions distort eyewitness memory, while Grant et al. found that matching the learning and recall contexts improves retrieval."},{"text":"

Loftus and Palmer: conformity distorts eyewitness memory.
Grant et al.: matching context improves retrieval.

","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses leading questions with conformity, which is associated with research such as Asch. Loftus and Palmer studied misleading question wording, while Grant et al. investigated context-dependent retrieval."},{"text":"

Loftus and Palmer: leading questions improve eyewitness accuracy.
Grant et al.: matching context impairs retrieval.

","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses both effects. Leading questions can distort rather than improve eyewitness memory, while matching the learning and testing environments facilitates rather than impairs retrieval in Grant et al."}]}]}],"examCountdown":{"examDate":"2027-05-10","paperLabel":"Paper 1"},"heading":"Loftus and Palmer (1974): Eyewitness testimony","title":"Loftus and Palmer (1974): Eyewitness testimony Flashcards","topbar":{"backHref":"/as-level/psychology/ocr/flashcards"},"topicSidebar":"$L37"}]}],"topicId":"eaf18821-28e1-51f4-9e23-1a68153a58cc","walled":"$L38"}],"$L39","$L3a"]