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examines variation across behaviour, cognitive processes, emotional responses and subjective experiences, treating these differences as meaningful features of individuals."},{"text":"age, gender, culture and social class","correct":false,"explanation":"These are demographic and social variables that may influence differences, but they are not the full psychological outcomes studied. The area examines behaviour, thinking, emotion and experience."},{"text":"learning, memory, attention and perception","correct":false,"explanation":"These are specific cognitive processes, making this list too narrow. Individual differences encompass the broader domains of behaviour, thinking, emotion and experience."},{"text":"genes, hormones, neurons and brain structures","correct":false,"explanation":"These are biological mechanisms that may help explain variation, rather than the full range of variation itself. The area investigates behaviour, thinking, emotion and experience."}]},{"id":"2c81ee5e-41ee-4745-80b8-d0c98ae35d34","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What does the individual differences area assume about variation between people?","back":"Variation is psychologically meaningful, not just noise around an average.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Variation is psychologically meaningful, not just noise around an average.","correct":true,"explanation":"The individual differences area treats variation between people as important psychological information that can reveal stable characteristics, unusual behaviour and meaningful differences in experience."},{"text":"Variation is random measurement error, not a meaningful feature of individuals.","correct":false,"explanation":"Treating differences as measurement error reflects the misconception that only group averages matter. Individual differences psychology assumes variation is psychologically meaningful, not merely noise."},{"text":"Variation is entirely biologically determined, not influenced by experience or context.","correct":false,"explanation":"Individual differences are not assumed to be exclusively biological, because environmental and psychological factors can also contribute. The key assumption is that variation is psychologically meaningful."},{"text":"Variation is too unstable to investigate, so only group averages are useful.","correct":false,"explanation":"Although some behaviour changes across situations, individual variation can still be systematic and informative. The area assumes differences are psychologically meaningful rather than useless deviations from an average."}]},{"id":"f2d70e9d-0276-421a-9525-a3abb1808c16","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"A relatively stable characteristic is a [ ]; behaviour differing from what is common or expected is [ ].","back":"A relatively stable characteristic is a trait; behaviour differing from what is common or expected is atypical behaviour.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A relatively stable characteristic is a trait; behaviour differing from what is common or expected is atypical behaviour.","correct":true,"explanation":"A trait is a characteristic that remains relatively consistent over time, while atypical behaviour is behaviour that differs from prevailing social norms or expectations."},{"text":"A relatively stable characteristic is a state; behaviour differing from what is common or expected is atypical behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"A state is temporary and situation-dependent, not relatively stable. The correct term for an enduring characteristic is trait, while behaviour outside common expectations is atypical behaviour."},{"text":"A relatively stable characteristic is a trait; behaviour differing from what is common or expected is typical behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"Typical behaviour conforms to what is common or expected, so it reverses the definition. A stable characteristic is a trait, and behaviour outside expectations is atypical behaviour."},{"text":"A relatively stable characteristic is a response; behaviour differing from what is common or expected is normal behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"A response is a particular reaction rather than an enduring characteristic, and normal behaviour fits expectations. The correct terms are trait and atypical behaviour respectively."}]},{"id":"49f95d80-20c9-465e-beea-b32e88bca40a","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"An [ ] approach studies one person in depth; a [ ] approach studies groups for general patterns.","back":"An idiographic approach studies one person in depth; a nomothetic approach studies groups for general patterns.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"An idiographic approach studies one person in depth; a nomothetic approach studies groups for general patterns.","correct":true,"explanation":"The idiographic approach develops a detailed understanding of an individual, whereas the nomothetic approach uses groups to identify general principles, patterns or laws."},{"text":"An experimental approach studies one person in depth; a nomothetic approach studies groups for general patterns.","correct":false,"explanation":"Experimental refers to manipulating variables to test causation, not necessarily studying one individual deeply. The individual-focused approach is idiographic, while the group-focused approach is nomothetic."},{"text":"An idiographic approach studies one person in depth; a behaviourist approach studies groups for general patterns.","correct":false,"explanation":"Behaviourism is a theoretical perspective focused on observable learning, not the term for seeking general laws from groups. That group-based approach is nomothetic."},{"text":"An observational approach studies one person in depth; a cognitive approach studies groups for general patterns.","correct":false,"explanation":"Observational describes a method and cognitive describes a perspective, so neither identifies the individual-group distinction. The correct contrasting approaches are idiographic and nomothetic."}]},{"id":"00646fd7-5bfd-4191-982d-ccdcca9b0567","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What method did Freud use in the Little Hans study?","back":"A longitudinal case study.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A longitudinal case study.","correct":true,"explanation":"Freud examined Little Hans as a single individual over an extended period, using reports collected across time, so the research was a longitudinal case study."},{"text":"A cross-sectional case study.","correct":false,"explanation":"Cross-sectional research compares data at one point in time, whereas Hans was followed over a period. Freud therefore used a longitudinal case study."},{"text":"A longitudinal experiment.","correct":false,"explanation":"Freud did not manipulate an independent variable under controlled conditions, so this was not an experiment. He followed one child over time in a longitudinal case study."},{"text":"A naturalistic observation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Freud did not directly and systematically observe Hans in his everyday environment. He constructed a longitudinal case study largely from reports supplied by Hans' father."}]},{"id":"91c3d136-3792-4d6e-845c-e1adf9bfaaf6","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What was Little Hans afraid of?","back":"Horses.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Horses.","correct":true,"explanation":"Little Hans developed a phobia of horses, particularly fearing that a horse might bite him or fall down, which Freud interpreted using psychodynamic theory."},{"text":"Dogs.","correct":false,"explanation":"Confusing the feared animal produces this distractor, but the case centred on a horse phobia. Hans feared horses, including the possibility that one might bite him."},{"text":"Snakes.","correct":false,"explanation":"Snakes are a common object of phobias, but they were not the focus of this case. Little Hans' reported fear was specifically directed towards horses."},{"text":"Spiders.","correct":false,"explanation":"Spiders are often associated with specific phobias, making this tempting, but Little Hans was afraid of horses rather than spiders."}]},{"id":"ae78669b-040b-4af8-9693-3bc22e089757","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Who provided most of Freud's data about Little Hans?","back":"Hans' father.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Hans' father.","correct":true,"explanation":"Hans' father observed and questioned him, then reported his conversations and behaviour to Freud. Freud therefore relied mainly on the father's second-hand accounts."},{"text":"Hans' mother.","correct":false,"explanation":"Although Hans' mother appeared in the events described, she was not Freud's main source. Hans' father recorded observations and conversations and communicated them to Freud."},{"text":"Hans' teacher.","correct":false,"explanation":"The study was not primarily based on school reports or information from a teacher. Most evidence reached Freud through Hans' father, who questioned and observed him."},{"text":"Hans' doctor.","correct":false,"explanation":"A medical doctor was not the principal source of the case material. Hans' father supplied most of Freud's data through written reports of observations and conversations."}]},{"id":"55a26c7b-b884-4146-945a-adbe0ab82005","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Freud interpreted Hans' horse phobia as displaced fear of whom?","back":"His father.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"His father.","correct":true,"explanation":"Freud argued that Hans displaced fear associated with his father onto horses, whose features symbolically represented the father within the Oedipus complex."},{"text":"His mother.","correct":false,"explanation":"Hans was interpreted as desiring his mother rather than fearing her. Freud believed the horse phobia displaced anxiety and fear concerning Hans' father."},{"text":"His horse.","correct":false,"explanation":"The horse was the object onto which the fear was displaced, not the original person feared. Freud interpreted the underlying fear as fear of Hans' father."},{"text":"His younger sister.","correct":false,"explanation":"Hans showed jealousy connected with his younger sister, but Freud did not identify her as the source of the displaced fear. He interpreted the fear as concerning Hans' father."}]},{"id":"c8fd0bb4-2962-4c99-b0ea-2d7877f8b1a9","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which psychoanalytic concept did Freud link to Little Hans' phobia?","back":"The Oedipus complex.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The Oedipus complex.","correct":true,"explanation":"Freud interpreted Little Hans’ fear of horses as an expression of the Oedipus complex, with unconscious sexual feelings towards his mother and rivalry with his father."},{"text":"The Electra complex.","correct":false,"explanation":"The Electra complex describes a daughter’s unconscious attraction to her father and rivalry with her mother. Freud linked Little Hans’ phobia to the Oedipus complex instead."},{"text":"The anal stage.","correct":false,"explanation":"The anal stage concerns psychosexual development focused on control and toilet training. Little Hans’ horse phobia was explained through the Oedipus complex, not fixation at this stage."},{"text":"The death instinct.","correct":false,"explanation":"The death instinct refers to an unconscious drive towards destruction or a return to an inorganic state. Freud explained Little Hans’ phobia using the Oedipus complex instead."}]},{"id":"d5ce8aaf-5aaa-4c3e-99e5-07c15a32faf9","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why is Freud's Little Hans study low in generalisability?","back":"It studied one child from a particular family background.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It studied one child from a particular family background.","correct":true,"explanation":"A single child from one family cannot represent children with different experiences, personalities or backgrounds, so findings from Little Hans are difficult to generalise."},{"text":"It studied many children from a representative range of backgrounds.","correct":false,"explanation":"A large, representative sample would improve generalisability rather than reduce it. Little Hans’ study was low in generalisability because it focused on one child from one family."},{"text":"It used several researchers from different psychological perspectives.","correct":false,"explanation":"Using several researchers could broaden interpretation, but it is not the main generalisability problem. The study’s findings were limited by its focus on one child and family."},{"text":"It compared two large groups in a controlled laboratory setting.","correct":false,"explanation":"Large comparison groups would usually support generalisability. Little Hans’ findings were difficult to apply to others because the investigation concerned one child from a particular family background."}]},{"id":"0dca755b-95c8-4709-b237-1dd47646707b","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why is Freud's Little Hans study low in reliability?","back":"Freud's subjective interpretations are hard to replicate.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Freud's subjective interpretations are hard to replicate.","correct":true,"explanation":"Freud relied on personal interpretations of accounts and behaviour rather than objective, standardised measures, so another researcher might interpret the same evidence differently."},{"text":"Freud's standardised measurements are hard to replicate.","correct":false,"explanation":"Standardised measurements are generally easier for researchers to repeat consistently. Low reliability arose because Freud used subjective interpretations, allowing different researchers to reach different conclusions."},{"text":"Freud's controlled experiments are hard to replicate.","correct":false,"explanation":"Little Hans was not a controlled experiment, and experimental control is not the key reliability issue here. Subjective interpretation made Freud’s conclusions difficult to reproduce consistently."},{"text":"Freud's large sample findings are hard to replicate.","correct":false,"explanation":"The study did not involve a large sample; it was a detailed investigation of one child. Its reliability was limited mainly by Freud’s subjective interpretations."}]},{"id":"642aa253-b5d2-4832-9044-d695701246f7","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Theory of mind is the ability to infer other people's [ ], such as beliefs or feelings.","back":"Theory of mind is the ability to infer other people's mental states, such as beliefs or feelings.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"mental states","correct":true,"explanation":"Theory of mind means inferring another person’s internal mental states, including what they believe, feel, know or intend, even when these differ from one’s own."},{"text":"physical states","correct":false,"explanation":"Physical states describe bodily conditions such as being tired or injured, whereas theory of mind concerns internal mental states such as beliefs and feelings."},{"text":"emotional reactions","correct":false,"explanation":"Emotional reactions are one part of mental life, but theory of mind includes more than emotions, such as beliefs, intentions and knowledge. The broader term is mental states."},{"text":"observable behaviours","correct":false,"explanation":"Observable behaviours are actions that can be seen directly, while theory of mind involves inferring hidden internal mental states, including beliefs and feelings."}]},{"id":"ec45ade8-9419-4863-9f3d-f0bdd2fa1334","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"In the Eyes Task, what judgement did participants make?","back":"They chose the mental-state word matching the eye-region photo.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They chose the mental-state word matching the eye-region photo.","correct":true,"explanation":"In the Eyes Task, participants viewed photographs showing only the eye region and selected the mental-state word that best described the person’s apparent state."},{"text":"They chose the physical-state word matching the eye-region photo.","correct":false,"explanation":"The task tested recognition of internal mental states, not bodily conditions such as pain or tiredness. Participants selected a mental-state word for each eye-region photograph."},{"text":"They chose the whole-face emotion matching the eye-region photo.","correct":false,"explanation":"Participants did not view whole faces or simply label basic emotions. They inferred a mental state from the eyes and selected the matching mental-state word."},{"text":"They chose the personality trait matching the eye-region photo.","correct":false,"explanation":"Personality traits are relatively enduring characteristics, whereas the task required judging a temporary mental state represented by the eye-region photograph."}]},{"id":"99356937-493d-4bd2-97f4-ab8cc9323833","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why was Baron-Cohen et al.'s Eyes Task study a quasi-experiment?","back":"The groups were naturally occurring, so diagnosis was not manipulated.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The groups were naturally occurring, so diagnosis was not manipulated.","correct":true,"explanation":"Participants belonged to existing diagnostic groups, such as autism or Asperger syndrome, rather than being randomly assigned or given a diagnosis by the researchers."},{"text":"The groups were randomly assigned, so diagnosis was not manipulated.","correct":false,"explanation":"Random assignment creates experimental groups, but participants’ diagnoses already existed and were not assigned by the researchers. This naturally occurring grouping makes the study quasi-experimental."},{"text":"The groups were experimentally created, so diagnosis was manipulated.","correct":false,"explanation":"The researchers did not create autism or Asperger diagnoses as an independent variable. The groups already existed, which is why the study was a quasi-experiment."},{"text":"The groups were matched participants, so diagnosis was manipulated.","correct":false,"explanation":"Matching participants can control variables, but it does not mean diagnosis was manipulated. The relevant feature was that diagnostic groups occurred naturally."}]},{"id":"2e73662f-aa22-4c8d-8a75-bfa493a87b13","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What was Baron-Cohen et al.'s main Eyes Task result?","back":"The autism/Asperger group scored lower than comparison groups.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The autism/Asperger group scored lower than comparison groups.","correct":true,"explanation":"Baron-Cohen and colleagues found that participants with autism or Asperger syndrome performed worse on the Eyes Task than the comparison groups, indicating greater difficulty inferring mental states."},{"text":"The autism/Asperger group scored higher than comparison groups.","correct":false,"explanation":"The autism/Asperger participants did not outperform the comparison groups. They scored lower, supporting the conclusion that they experienced difficulty with advanced theory of mind."},{"text":"The autism/Asperger group scored the same as comparison groups.","correct":false,"explanation":"The groups were not equivalent on the Eyes Task. The autism/Asperger group achieved lower scores than the comparison groups, showing reduced performance in mental-state recognition."},{"text":"The comparison groups scored lower than the autism/Asperger group.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the study’s main finding. Participants with autism or Asperger syndrome scored lower than the comparison groups on identifying mental states from the eyes."}]},{"id":"255c13b7-6838-4cc2-a50d-83cff1be5818","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What did Baron-Cohen et al. conclude about autism and theory of mind?","back":"Autism involves difficulties with advanced theory of mind.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Autism involves difficulties with advanced theory of mind.","correct":true,"explanation":"The Eyes Task required subtle inferences about other people’s mental states. Lower scores in the autism/Asperger group supported difficulties with advanced, rather than basic, theory of mind."},{"text":"Autism involves difficulties with basic theory of mind.","correct":false,"explanation":"The study specifically suggested difficulty with advanced mental-state understanding, involving subtle emotions and intentions. It did not establish that basic theory of mind abilities are impaired."},{"text":"Autism involves enhanced advanced theory of mind.","correct":false,"explanation":"Lower Eyes Task scores indicate poorer, not enhanced, performance when interpreting subtle mental states. The conclusion was that autism involves difficulties with advanced theory of mind."},{"text":"Autism does not involve difficulties with theory of mind.","correct":false,"explanation":"This contradicts the lower performance observed in the autism/Asperger group. Baron-Cohen and colleagues concluded that autism is associated with difficulties in advanced theory of mind."}]},{"id":"235ef561-0066-4b67-a6f3-c2e48c0c54b9","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why may the Eyes Task lack ecological validity?","back":"Real interaction includes voice, movement, context and relationships.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Real interaction includes voice, movement, context and relationships.","correct":true,"explanation":"The Eyes Task presents isolated eye-region photographs, so it removes important social information. Real interactions involve vocal and physical behaviour, surrounding circumstances and an ongoing relationship between people."},{"text":"Real interaction includes facial expression, eye contact, speech and body language.","correct":false,"explanation":"This focuses mainly on non-verbal communication and overlooks situational influences. The correct answer is voice, movement, context and relationships, because the Eyes Task strips away much of real social interaction."},{"text":"Real interaction includes attention, memory, intelligence and motivation.","correct":false,"explanation":"These are psychological processes rather than the social features missing from the task. The correct answer is voice, movement, context and relationships, which are important parts of everyday interaction."},{"text":"Real interaction includes stimuli, responses, reinforcement and conditioning.","correct":false,"explanation":"This describes behaviourist learning concepts, not the features that make social situations realistic. The correct answer is voice, movement, context and relationships, which the Eyes Task cannot fully reproduce."}]},{"id":"4d7fb419-e543-485e-adeb-6348eaf34f4b","cardType":"basic","points":3,"front":"Contrast Freud and Baron-Cohen et al. by research style.","back":"

Freud: idiographic, qualitative, interpretive.
Baron-Cohen et al.: nomothetic, quantitative, more standardised.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Freud: idiographic, qualitative, interpretive.
Baron-Cohen et al.: nomothetic, quantitative, more standardised.

","correct":true,"explanation":"Freud focused deeply on individual cases and interpreted qualitative material. Baron-Cohen et al. studied patterns across participants using numerical measures and a more standardised procedure, reflecting opposing research styles."},{"text":"

Freud: nomothetic, quantitative, highly standardised.
Baron-Cohen et al.: idiographic, qualitative, interpretive.

","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the methodological profiles of the two approaches. Freud used idiographic, qualitative and interpretive research, whereas Baron-Cohen et al. used nomothetic, quantitative and more standardised methods."},{"text":"

Freud: experimental, quantitative, standardised.
Baron-Cohen et al.: clinical, qualitative, interpretive.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Freud did not primarily test variables experimentally, and Baron-Cohen et al. did not rely on an interpretive clinical approach. Their correct contrast is idiographic versus nomothetic and qualitative versus quantitative."},{"text":"

Freud: nomothetic, qualitative, standardised.
Baron-Cohen et al.: idiographic, quantitative, interpretive.

","correct":false,"explanation":"This mixes features from both research styles and wrongly assigns them to each psychologist. Freud’s approach was idiographic and interpretive, while Baron-Cohen et al.’s was nomothetic and more standardised."}]},{"id":"f5e9293d-4fa8-45d3-9509-e37e074aab83","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What broad real-world benefit can individual-differences research have?","back":"It can improve diagnosis, therapy, education and support.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It can improve diagnosis, therapy, education and support.","correct":true,"explanation":"Understanding individual differences can help professionals identify difficulties more accurately, tailor interventions, adapt teaching and provide appropriate support for people with different needs."},{"text":"It can improve diagnosis, punishment, exclusion and control.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reflects a harmful misuse of individual differences research rather than its constructive benefit. The correct answer is diagnosis, therapy, education and support, which applies findings to help individuals."},{"text":"It can improve classification, comparison, prediction and competition.","correct":false,"explanation":"These may describe research activities, but they do not capture the broad practical benefit being asked about. The correct answer concerns improving diagnosis, therapy, education and support."},{"text":"It can improve selection, labelling, ranking and segregation.","correct":false,"explanation":"These outcomes risk treating differences as grounds for separation or hierarchy, rather than providing support. The correct answer is diagnosis, therapy, education and support, which are beneficial applications."}]},{"id":"580ca389-9e8b-43cf-b9b8-24aa300dbdd5","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why can individual-differences research be socially sensitive?","back":"Findings can affect labels, treatment, rights and public attitudes.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Findings can affect labels, treatment, rights and public attitudes.","correct":true,"explanation":"Research findings may influence how people are categorised, treated and granted rights, while also shaping wider public beliefs. This creates risks of stigma, discrimination or unjustified social reactions."},{"text":"Findings can affect privacy, consent, confidentiality and anonymity.","correct":false,"explanation":"These are important research-ethics concerns, but they are not the specific social consequences highlighted here. The correct answer concerns labels, treatment, rights and public attitudes."},{"text":"Findings can affect assessment, measurement, reliability and validity.","correct":false,"explanation":"These are methodological concepts used to judge research quality, not the main social sensitivity of findings. The correct answer is labels, treatment, rights and public attitudes."},{"text":"Findings can affect stereotypes, prejudice, discrimination and conformity.","correct":false,"explanation":"These are related social processes, but the answer requires the direct consequences individual-differences findings may have for people and society. Those consequences involve labels, treatment, rights and attitudes."}]},{"id":"e578f028-ba33-40f5-bede-7edf7fb8830e","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"For non-parametric tests, [ ] tests a difference between two unrelated groups; [ ] tests related conditions or matched pairs.","back":"For non-parametric tests, Mann-Whitney U tests a difference between two unrelated groups; Wilcoxon Signed Ranks tests related conditions or matched pairs.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"For non-parametric tests, Mann-Whitney U tests a difference between two unrelated groups; Wilcoxon Signed Ranks tests related conditions or matched pairs.","correct":true,"explanation":"Mann-Whitney U compares scores from two independent or unrelated groups. Wilcoxon Signed Ranks compares related scores, such as repeated measures from the same participants or matched pairs."},{"text":"For non-parametric tests, Wilcoxon Signed Ranks tests a difference between two unrelated groups; Mann-Whitney U tests related conditions or matched pairs.","correct":false,"explanation":"The two tests have been reversed. Mann-Whitney U is used for two unrelated groups, whereas Wilcoxon Signed Ranks is used for related conditions or matched pairs."},{"text":"For non-parametric tests, independent groups t-test tests a difference between two unrelated groups; paired samples t-test tests related conditions or matched pairs.","correct":false,"explanation":"These are parametric t-tests, so they are the wrong family of tests for the question. The correct non-parametric choices are Mann-Whitney U and Wilcoxon Signed Ranks."},{"text":"For non-parametric tests, Chi-squared tests a difference between two unrelated groups; Spearman’s rho tests related conditions or matched pairs.","correct":false,"explanation":"Chi-squared tests associations or differences involving categorical frequencies, while Spearman’s rho tests correlations. The correct pair for these designs is Mann-Whitney U and Wilcoxon Signed Ranks."}]},{"id":"8a843d6e-db5b-49fc-b076-a20fb48f40c7","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"At $p \\le 0.05$, researchers [ ], accepting a [ ] probability the result occurred by chance.","back":"At $p \\le 0.05$, researchers reject the null hypothesis, accepting a 5% or lower probability the result occurred by chance.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"At $p \\le 0.05$, researchers reject the null hypothesis, accepting a 5% or lower probability the result occurred by chance.","correct":true,"explanation":"A p-value of 0.05 or less meets the conventional significance criterion. Researchers reject the null hypothesis because the observed result would be relatively unlikely if chance alone explained it."},{"text":"At $p \\le 0.05$, researchers accept the null hypothesis, accepting a 5% or lower probability the result occurred by chance.","correct":false,"explanation":"A probability at or below 0.05 meets the conventional significance threshold, so the null hypothesis is rejected rather than accepted. The chance probability is 5% or lower."},{"text":"At $p \\le 0.05$, researchers reject the null hypothesis, accepting a 95% or higher probability the result occurred by chance.","correct":false,"explanation":"The decision is correctly identified, but the probability has been reversed. A significant result implies a 5% or lower probability of occurring by chance, not 95% or higher."},{"text":"At $p \\le 0.05$, researchers accept the alternative hypothesis, accepting a 5% or lower probability the result occurred by chance.","correct":false,"explanation":"A significance test formally rejects the null hypothesis rather than simply accepting the alternative hypothesis. The correct wording is reject the null hypothesis, with a 5% or lower chance probability."}]},{"id":"27a5adcd-66c1-4aca-8030-0cd829f5aa4d","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"A [ ] is a false positive; a [ ] is a false negative.","back":"A Type I error is a false positive; a Type II error is a false negative.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A Type I error is a false positive; a Type II error is a false negative.","correct":true,"explanation":"A Type I error occurs when researchers reject a true null hypothesis, producing a false positive. A Type II error occurs when they fail to detect a real effect, producing a false negative."},{"text":"A Type II error is a false positive; a Type I error is a false negative.","correct":false,"explanation":"The two error types have been reversed. A Type I error is a false positive, rejecting a true null hypothesis, while a Type II error is a false negative."},{"text":"A Type I error is a false negative; a Type II error is a false positive.","correct":false,"explanation":"This assigns each error to the opposite outcome. Type I means detecting an effect that is not really present, whereas Type II means missing an effect that is present."},{"text":"A Type I error is an accurate positive; a Type II error is an accurate negative.","correct":false,"explanation":"Neither term describes an accurate decision. Both are statistical mistakes: Type I is a false positive and Type II is a false negative."}]}]}],"examCountdown":{"examDate":"2027-05-10","paperLabel":"Paper 1"},"heading":"Individual differences","title":"Individual differences Flashcards","topbar":{"backHref":"/as-level/psychology/ocr/flashcards"},"topicSidebar":"$L38"}]}],"topicId":"b6243911-e485-5ba5-aac9-643f914d3561","walled":"$L39"}],"$L3a","$L3b"]