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information."},{"text":"External environmental influences, such as rewards, punishment and conditioning.","correct":false,"explanation":"Rewards, punishment and conditioning are environmental causes emphasised by the behaviourist area. The cognitive area instead focuses on internal mental processes such as memory, perception and thinking."},{"text":"Inherited biological processes, such as genes, hormones and brain structure.","correct":false,"explanation":"Genes, hormones and brain structures are central to the biological area. The cognitive area explains behaviour through internal mental processes such as memory, perception and thinking."},{"text":"Unconscious emotional conflicts, such as repression, anxiety and childhood trauma.","correct":false,"explanation":"Unconscious conflicts and childhood experiences are associated with psychodynamic explanations. The cognitive area focuses on internal mental processes such as memory, perception and thinking."}]},{"id":"e9e185bc-3688-474e-81cb-bf37ecfcbb1a","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Cognitive psychologists view humans as [ ] who interpret, store and retrieve information.","back":"Cognitive psychologists view humans as active information processors who interpret, store and retrieve information.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"active information processors","correct":true,"explanation":"Cognitive psychologists describe humans as active information processors because people interpret incoming information, store it in memory and retrieve it when required."},{"text":"passive information receivers","correct":false,"explanation":"Describing humans as passive receivers overlooks their active interpretation and organisation of information. Cognitive psychologists view humans as active information processors who store and retrieve information."},{"text":"conditioned response producers","correct":false,"explanation":"Conditioned responses belong to behaviourist explanations based on learned associations. Cognitive psychologists instead view humans as active information processors who interpret, store and retrieve information."},{"text":"unconscious conflict resolvers","correct":false,"explanation":"Unconscious conflict is a psychodynamic concept rather than an information-processing concept. Cognitive psychologists describe humans as active information processors who interpret, store and retrieve information."}]},{"id":"83c22a39-4367-4e7e-a4f4-6a2cc5259a35","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why do cognitive psychologists use inference?","back":"Mental processes cannot usually be directly observed.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Mental processes cannot usually be directly observed.","correct":true,"explanation":"Processes such as remembering and thinking occur internally and cannot usually be directly observed, so cognitive psychologists infer them from measurable behaviour."},{"text":"Behavioural responses cannot usually be directly observed.","correct":false,"explanation":"Behavioural responses can generally be observed and measured directly. Inference is needed because internal mental processes cannot usually be observed directly."},{"text":"Experimental findings cannot usually be directly observed.","correct":false,"explanation":"Experimental findings are produced from recorded observations and measurements. Cognitive psychologists use inference because the mental processes underlying observable behaviour cannot usually be seen directly."},{"text":"Environmental stimuli cannot usually be directly observed.","correct":false,"explanation":"Environmental stimuli can normally be presented, controlled and observed during an experiment. Inference is required because internal mental processes cannot usually be observed directly."}]},{"id":"eba80667-9092-44bf-9d05-88c2b3c5f6c3","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Cognitive psychologists measure [ ] and infer [ ].","back":"Cognitive psychologists measure observable behaviour and infer internal mental processes.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Cognitive psychologists measure observable behaviour and infer internal mental processes.","correct":true,"explanation":"Behaviour can be directly observed and measured, while internal processes such as memory and thinking must be inferred from the resulting behavioural evidence."},{"text":"Cognitive psychologists measure internal mental processes and infer observable behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the relationship: mental processes are not directly measurable, whereas behaviour is observable. Cognitive psychologists measure observable behaviour and infer internal mental processes."},{"text":"Cognitive psychologists measure physiological responses and infer external environmental stimuli.","correct":false,"explanation":"Physiological measures are more characteristic of biological investigation, while environmental stimuli can be observed directly. Cognitive psychologists measure observable behaviour and infer internal mental processes."},{"text":"Cognitive psychologists measure observable behaviour and infer inherited biological structures.","correct":false,"explanation":"Although behaviour is measured, cognitive inference concerns internal mental processes rather than inherited biological structures. Biological structures are investigated using biological methods such as brain imaging."}]},{"id":"99058f8d-31a3-42a4-9a1e-860555a6e70a","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What does a schema help a person do quickly?","back":"Organise and interpret new information.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Organise and interpret new information.","correct":true,"explanation":"A schema provides a mental framework that allows incoming information to be organised and interpreted rapidly using knowledge developed through past experience."},{"text":"Record and reproduce new information.","correct":false,"explanation":"Schemas do not create exact recordings that can simply be reproduced. They organise and interpret new information using expectations formed from previous experience."},{"text":"Ignore and discard new information.","correct":false,"explanation":"Schemas may influence which details receive attention, but their central function is not to discard information. They help organise and interpret new information quickly."},{"text":"Observe and measure new information.","correct":false,"explanation":"Observation and measurement are research activities rather than the function of a schema. A schema helps a person organise and interpret new information quickly."}]},{"id":"753566c9-bbfc-48c2-bd55-ca804ee21fa8","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"A schema is based on [ ] and creates [ ].","back":"A schema is based on past experience and creates expectations.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A schema is based on past experience and creates expectations.","correct":true,"explanation":"Schemas develop from previous encounters and knowledge. They create expectations about situations, helping people process new information quickly but sometimes causing distortion."},{"text":"A schema is based on future experience and creates exact recordings.","correct":false,"explanation":"Schemas cannot be based on experiences that have not yet occurred, and they do not create exact recordings. They are based on past experience and create expectations."},{"text":"A schema is based on past experience and creates unbiased memories.","correct":false,"explanation":"Past experience does shape schemas, but schemas can bias and distort memory rather than guaranteeing accuracy. They create expectations that guide interpretation and recall."},{"text":"A schema is based on genetic inheritance and creates expectations.","correct":false,"explanation":"Schemas are cognitive frameworks learned through past experience, not directly inherited genetic structures. These experience-based frameworks create expectations about new situations and information."}]},{"id":"c7b908cb-0572-4640-95af-066a8d695537","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How can a schema distort memory after a crash?","back":"It can make expected details seem remembered.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It can make expected details seem remembered.","correct":true,"explanation":"A crash schema contains expectations about what usually occurs. During reconstruction, expected details may be added to recall and mistakenly experienced as genuine memories."},{"text":"It can make unexpected details completely accurate.","correct":false,"explanation":"Schemas do not guarantee that unusual details will be recalled accurately. Instead, they can insert expected details into reconstructed recall, making them seem genuinely remembered."},{"text":"It can make all observed details remain unchanged.","correct":false,"explanation":"Memory is not an unchanged recording of every observed detail. A crash schema can distort reconstruction by making expected details seem as though they were remembered."},{"text":"It can make post-event details have no influence.","correct":false,"explanation":"Post-event information can influence reconstructed memory rather than having no effect. Schemas may combine expectations with later information, making expected crash details seem remembered."}]},{"id":"c08bd3bb-9e27-4825-a0d8-88dd26ce22c7","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why is memory described as reconstructive?","back":"Recall is rebuilt, not replayed exactly.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Recall is rebuilt, not replayed exactly.","correct":true,"explanation":"Remembering involves rebuilding an event from stored information, schemas and later knowledge rather than replaying a complete, exact recording of the original experience."},{"text":"Recall is recorded, then replayed exactly.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reflects the mistaken idea that memory works like a video recording. Recall is reconstructed from stored details and schemas, so it is rebuilt rather than replayed exactly."},{"text":"Recall is unchanged, unless deliberately altered.","correct":false,"explanation":"Memory can change unintentionally through schemas, expectations and post-event information. Recall is described as reconstructive because it is rebuilt rather than preserved unchanged."},{"text":"Recall is forgotten, then created from nothing.","correct":false,"explanation":"Reconstructive memory does not mean an event is entirely invented after being forgotten. Recall is rebuilt from stored information, although schemas and later information may distort it."}]},{"id":"b731b03e-52b0-437c-b8d6-03a51d7909c3","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Reconstructive memory is influenced by original information, [ ] and [ ].","back":"Reconstructive memory is influenced by original information, later information and existing schemas.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Reconstructive memory is influenced by original information, later information and existing schemas.","correct":true,"explanation":"Reconstructive memory combines details from the original event with information encountered later and relevant schemas already stored in memory, rather than reproducing an exact recording."},{"text":"Reconstructive memory is influenced by original information, sensory information and short-term rehearsal.","correct":false,"explanation":"Sensory information and short-term rehearsal describe stages or processes in memory models. Reconstructive memory is instead influenced by original information, later information and existing schemas."},{"text":"Reconstructive memory is influenced by original information, retrieval failure and trace decay.","correct":false,"explanation":"Retrieval failure and trace decay are explanations for forgetting, not influences used to reconstruct an event. Reconstruction draws on original information, later information and existing schemas."},{"text":"Reconstructive memory is influenced by original information, genetic information and innate reflexes.","correct":false,"explanation":"Genetic information and innate reflexes concern biological inheritance and automatic behaviour. Reconstructive memory is shaped by original information, later information and existing schemas."}]},{"id":"64c9bfe2-f94b-4176-9530-3389de582914","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which OCR core study illustrates reconstructive memory?","back":"Loftus & Palmer (1974).","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Loftus & Palmer (1974).","correct":true,"explanation":"Loftus and Palmer showed that changing a verb in a leading question altered participants’ speed estimates and later reports, demonstrating that memory is reconstructive."},{"text":"Grant et al. (1998).","correct":false,"explanation":"Grant et al. investigated context-dependent memory rather than the reconstructive effects of leading questions. The relevant OCR core study is Loftus & Palmer (1974)."},{"text":"Moray (1959).","correct":false,"explanation":"Moray examined selective auditory attention using dichotic listening, not reconstructive eyewitness memory. Loftus & Palmer (1974) is the core study illustrating reconstruction."},{"text":"Sperry (1968).","correct":false,"explanation":"Sperry studied hemispheric lateralisation in split-brain patients rather than memory reconstruction. The OCR core study demonstrating reconstructive memory is Loftus & Palmer (1974)."}]},{"id":"0527c051-28aa-4cb2-87fc-f8bd41e25b7a","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"In Loftus & Palmer, what was the independent variable?","back":"The verb used in the speed question.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The verb used in the speed question.","correct":true,"explanation":"The researchers manipulated the verb in the critical speed question, using words of different intensity such as “contacted”, “hit”, “collided”, “bumped” and “smashed”."},{"text":"The speed estimate given after the film.","correct":false,"explanation":"Participants’ estimated speeds were measured as the dependent variable, not manipulated. The independent variable was the verb used in the speed question."},{"text":"The collision clip shown to each participant.","correct":false,"explanation":"The researchers used the same filmed collisions within the experiment rather than manipulating each participant’s clip. They changed the verb used in the speed question."},{"text":"The broken glass reported by each participant.","correct":false,"explanation":"Whether broken glass was reported was an outcome measured in the second experiment. The manipulated independent variable was the verb used in the speed question."}]},{"id":"769eadb7-001b-4b11-ab73-7cbf0513c173","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"In Loftus & Palmer, what happened when the verb was stronger?","back":"Mean speed estimates increased.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Mean speed estimates increased.","correct":true,"explanation":"Stronger verbs such as “smashed” implied a more severe collision, leading participants to reconstruct the event and give higher mean speed estimates."},{"text":"Mean speed estimates decreased.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the observed relationship. Stronger verbs suggested a more forceful collision, so mean speed estimates increased rather than decreased."},{"text":"Mean speed estimates remained unchanged.","correct":false,"explanation":"The verb did affect participants’ responses: stronger wording produced higher estimates. Therefore, mean speed estimates increased rather than remaining unchanged."},{"text":"Mean identification accuracy increased.","correct":false,"explanation":"The experiment measured estimated speed rather than the accuracy of eyewitness identification. As the verb became stronger, mean speed estimates increased."}]},{"id":"482da26c-3bb5-4939-8e5b-4bade427338d","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"In Loftus & Palmer’s second experiment, what false detail was reported more after “smashed”?","back":"Broken glass.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Broken glass.","correct":true,"explanation":"Participants exposed to “smashed” were more likely to report seeing broken glass, although none appeared in the film, showing the effect of post-event information."},{"text":"Skid marks.","correct":false,"explanation":"Skid marks were not the false detail tested in the second experiment. Participants were asked about broken glass, which was reported more often after “smashed”."},{"text":"A damaged traffic light.","correct":false,"explanation":"A damaged traffic light was not the critical false detail in this experiment. The “smashed” group reported broken glass more often, despite none being present."},{"text":"Injured pedestrians.","correct":false,"explanation":"Injured pedestrians were not the false detail participants were questioned about. The study measured reports of broken glass, which increased following the verb “smashed”."}]},{"id":"80f94bb6-2173-4a5c-9aaf-d79c0517d2ad","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Leading questions can alter eyewitness reports because memory is [ ] and affected by [ ].","back":"Leading questions can alter eyewitness reports because memory is reconstructive and affected by post-event information.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Leading questions can alter eyewitness reports because memory is reconstructive and affected by post-event information.","correct":true,"explanation":"Memory is reconstructive, so information supplied after an event can become integrated with the original memory and alter what an eyewitness subsequently reports."},{"text":"Leading questions can alter eyewitness reports because memory is multi-store and affected by maintenance rehearsal.","correct":false,"explanation":"The multi-store model describes memory stores, but does not explain the wording effect through rehearsal. Leading questions work because memory is reconstructive and affected by post-event information."},{"text":"Leading questions can alter eyewitness reports because memory is reproductive and affected by post-event information.","correct":false,"explanation":"Calling memory reproductive suggests an accurate replay of events, which contradicts Loftus and Palmer’s findings. Memory is reconstructive and can be altered by post-event information."},{"text":"Leading questions can alter eyewitness reports because memory is reconstructive and affected by pre-event information.","correct":false,"explanation":"Pre-event expectations can influence perception, but leading questions provide information after the witnessed event. Memory is reconstructive and affected specifically by post-event information."}]},{"id":"f3bf496d-e9b8-4d7f-9790-27abac4f8eb1","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What ethical issue came from Loftus & Palmer hiding the focus on wording?","back":"Mild deception.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Mild deception.","correct":true,"explanation":"Participants were not told that the researchers were investigating how question wording affected memory, so the study involved mild deception about its true purpose."},{"text":"Lack of confidentiality.","correct":false,"explanation":"The hidden purpose concerned deception, not the disclosure of personal data. The relevant ethical issue was mild deception about the study’s focus on wording."},{"text":"Risk of physical harm.","correct":false,"explanation":"Watching collision footage did not create a realistic risk of bodily injury. Hiding the investigation’s focus on wording instead constituted mild deception."},{"text":"Invasion of privacy.","correct":false,"explanation":"The procedure did not intrude into participants’ private lives or observe them secretly. Concealing the true focus on question wording involved mild deception."}]},{"id":"b68614d0-c338-4449-a608-afe14eaff50b","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why did Loftus & Palmer’s lab setting support reliability?","back":"It allowed standardised clips and questions.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It allowed standardised clips and questions.","correct":true,"explanation":"Using the same film clips and consistently worded questions made the procedure replicable. Replication can test whether the findings are consistent, supporting reliability."},{"text":"It allowed realistic driving conditions.","correct":false,"explanation":"A laboratory did not reproduce realistic driving conditions, and realism concerns ecological validity rather than reliability. Reliability was supported by standardised clips and questions."},{"text":"It allowed real collisions and eyewitnesses.","correct":false,"explanation":"Participants watched prepared films rather than witnessing real road accidents. Reliability came from presenting standardised clips and questions that other researchers could replicate."},{"text":"It allowed different clips and instructions.","correct":false,"explanation":"Varying clips and instructions would introduce uncontrolled differences and reduce replicability. Reliability was supported because clips and questions could be standardised across participants."}]},{"id":"c8ced745-e4e2-43a1-8aaf-76956fb0ba8f","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why did Loftus & Palmer have lower ecological validity?","back":"Watching a film clip differs from witnessing a real crash.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Watching a film clip differs from witnessing a real crash.","correct":true,"explanation":"The study used a filmed crash rather than a naturally occurring accident, so participants may have responded differently from people witnessing a real crash. This limits ecological validity."},{"text":"Answering a questionnaire differs from witnessing a real crash.","correct":false,"explanation":"Loftus and Palmer did not rely on questionnaires as the main event presentation. The ecological-validity problem was that watching a film clip differs from witnessing a real crash."},{"text":"Reading a written account differs from witnessing a real crash.","correct":false,"explanation":"Participants watched a filmed accident rather than reading about one. The correct criticism is that watching a film clip differs from witnessing a real crash, making the situation less realistic."},{"text":"Discussing a 기억ed event differs from witnessing a real crash.","correct":false,"explanation":"The experiment did not involve participants discussing an already remembered event. Its lower ecological validity came from watching a film clip instead of witnessing a real crash."}]},{"id":"a1b38540-b564-4a54-8343-cc70668f9e6d","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which OCR core study illustrates context-dependent memory?","back":"Grant et al. (1998).","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Grant et al. (1998).","correct":true,"explanation":"Grant et al. (1998) is the OCR core study demonstrating context-dependent memory by varying the learning and testing environments."},{"text":"Loftus & Palmer (1974).","correct":false,"explanation":"Loftus and Palmer investigated how leading questions affected eyewitness estimates of speed. The OCR study illustrating context-dependent memory is Grant et al. (1998)."},{"text":"Baddeley (1966).","correct":false,"explanation":"Baddeley examined coding in short-term and long-term memory using word lists. The context-dependent memory core study was Grant et al. (1998), which varied environmental context."},{"text":"Glanzer and Cunitz (1966).","correct":false,"explanation":"Glanzer and Cunitz studied the serial position effect and the influence of an interference task. Grant et al. (1998) is the study associated with context-dependent memory."}]},{"id":"7f321feb-bd7a-437a-86cf-3e937b8257ff","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What environmental feature did Grant et al. vary?","back":"Background noise.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Background noise.","correct":true,"explanation":"Grant et al. varied whether participants studied and were tested in a quiet environment or with background noise, allowing context-dependent memory to be examined."},{"text":"Lighting level.","correct":false,"explanation":"Lighting was not the environmental feature manipulated in Grant et al.’s study. They varied background noise, comparing quiet and noisy learning and testing conditions."},{"text":"Room temperature.","correct":false,"explanation":"Room temperature was not used as the changing context in Grant et al.’s experiment. The researchers varied background noise between quiet and noisy conditions."},{"text":"Seating position.","correct":false,"explanation":"Participants’ seating positions were not the key environmental manipulation. Grant et al. changed the presence of background noise to test whether matching contexts improved recall."}]},{"id":"9af3ae0f-fb97-4312-b187-d333a66e36d6","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Context-dependent memory predicts better recall when the retrieval context [ ] the learning context.","back":"Context-dependent memory predicts better recall when the retrieval context matches the learning context.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"matches","correct":true,"explanation":"Context-dependent memory predicts that recall improves when the retrieval environment matches the environment in which learning occurred, because contextual cues help access the stored information."},{"text":"mismatches","correct":false,"explanation":"A mismatch between learning and retrieval contexts usually provides fewer matching environmental cues. The prediction is better recall when the retrieval context matches the learning context."},{"text":"reverses","correct":false,"explanation":"Reversing a context is not the mechanism proposed by context-dependent memory and would not provide matching retrieval cues. Recall is predicted to improve when the contexts match."},{"text":"replaces","correct":false,"explanation":"Replacing the learning context does not describe the matching-cue effect in context-dependent memory. Better recall is expected when the retrieval context matches the learning context."}]},{"id":"c7deccff-b5c3-4bb9-a485-5ed59fb55150","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What was Grant et al.’s general finding?","back":"Recall was better when learning and testing contexts matched.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Recall was better when learning and testing contexts matched.","correct":true,"explanation":"Grant et al. found that participants recalled more material when the environmental conditions during learning were the same as those during testing, supporting context-dependent memory."},{"text":"Recall was better when learning and testing contexts differed.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses Grant et al.’s main finding. Matching environments provide useful retrieval cues, so recall was better when learning and testing contexts matched."},{"text":"Recall was better when testing occurred without background noise.","correct":false,"explanation":"Quiet testing was not always superior regardless of learning conditions. Recall was best when learning and testing contexts matched, whether that context was quiet or noisy."},{"text":"Recall was better when learning occurred without background noise.","correct":false,"explanation":"The study did not show that quiet learning was universally better. Its general finding was that recall improved when the learning and testing contexts matched."}]},{"id":"ad100971-eed2-4461-bde4-3478507902e7","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What practical application uses reinstating context to improve eyewitness recall?","back":"The cognitive interview.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The cognitive interview.","correct":true,"explanation":"The cognitive interview asks witnesses to mentally reinstate the original environmental and emotional context, helping retrieve contextual cues and potentially improving eyewitness recall."},{"text":"The structured interview.","correct":false,"explanation":"A structured interview standardises questions but does not specifically use context reinstatement. The cognitive interview applies context-dependent memory to improve eyewitness recall."},{"text":"The clinical interview.","correct":false,"explanation":"A clinical interview is designed to assess psychological difficulties rather than reinstate the context of an event. The relevant eyewitness technique is the cognitive interview."},{"text":"The forensic assessment.","correct":false,"explanation":"Forensic assessment is a broad evaluative process, not the specific context-reinstatement technique used with witnesses. The practical application is the cognitive interview."}]},{"id":"4f72b13d-e48e-4255-88b7-f68d437b9c42","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What is a strength of controlled experiments in the cognitive area?","back":"They allow testable hypotheses and measurable data.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They allow testable hypotheses and measurable data.","correct":true,"explanation":"Controlled experiments isolate variables and produce objective measurements, allowing researchers to formulate hypotheses that can be tested and evaluated using measurable data."},{"text":"They allow personal opinions and measurable data.","correct":false,"explanation":"Personal opinions are subjective and are not the defining strength of controlled experiments. Their strength is that they allow testable hypotheses and measurable data."},{"text":"They allow uncontrolled observations and measurable data.","correct":false,"explanation":"Lack of control makes it harder to identify cause and effect. Controlled experiments are valuable because they allow testable hypotheses and measurable data under standardised conditions."},{"text":"They allow unique case studies and measurable data.","correct":false,"explanation":"Unique case studies can provide detailed information but do not represent the central strength of controlled experiments. Controlled experiments support testable hypotheses through systematic measurement."}]},{"id":"30fa857e-13b8-4455-b927-12f6a7d41ec5","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why can cognitive psychology be criticised as reductionist?","back":"It may reduce complex experiences to scores or reaction times.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It may reduce complex experiences to scores or reaction times.","correct":true,"explanation":"Cognitive psychology can be reductionist when it represents rich mental experiences through narrow measures such as test scores or reaction times, potentially overlooking their complexity."},{"text":"It may reduce complex experiences to biological processes or brain scans.","correct":false,"explanation":"This describes biological reductionism more directly. The criticism of cognitive psychology is that it may reduce complex experiences to scores or reaction times."},{"text":"It may reduce complex experiences to social influences or cultural norms.","correct":false,"explanation":"Focusing on social and cultural influences is a broader social explanation, not the usual reductionist criticism of cognitive psychology. The concern is reliance on scores or reaction times."},{"text":"It may reduce complex experiences to unconscious conflicts or childhood memories.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reflects a psychodynamic explanation rather than the cognitive approach’s reductionist limitation. Cognitive psychology may oversimplify experiences by measuring them through scores or reaction times."}]},{"id":"02b573d1-db19-413d-a555-fb554aee95ab","cardType":"basic","points":3,"front":"What is the key trade-off of cognitive laboratory studies?","back":"

Higher control supports reliability and cause-effect.
Lower realism may reduce ecological validity.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Higher control supports reliability and cause-effect.
Lower realism may reduce ecological validity.

","correct":true,"explanation":"Laboratory control standardises procedures, making findings more replicable and supporting causal conclusions. However, artificial tasks and settings can lack everyday realism, limiting ecological validity."},{"text":"

Higher realism supports ecological validity and generalisability.
Lower control may reduce reliability and cause-effect.

","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the usual characteristics of laboratory research and describes something closer to field research. Cognitive laboratory studies gain reliability and causal inference through control, but may lose ecological validity through reduced realism."},{"text":"

Higher control may reduce reliability and cause-effect.
Lower realism supports ecological validity.

","correct":false,"explanation":"The consequences have been reversed. Greater control usually strengthens reliability and causal conclusions, whereas lower realism can weaken ecological validity because behaviour in an artificial setting may not reflect everyday life."},{"text":"

Higher control supports realism and ecological validity.
Lower realism may reduce replicability.

","correct":false,"explanation":"This swaps the benefits and limitations of laboratory methods. Control chiefly improves replicability and causal inference, while artificiality and low realism threaten ecological validity rather than increasing it."}]}]}],"examCountdown":{"examDate":"2027-05-10","paperLabel":"Paper 1"},"heading":"Cognitive","title":"Cognitive Flashcards","topbar":{"backHref":"/as-level/psychology/ocr/flashcards"},"topicSidebar":"$L35"}]}],"topicId":"cc50f33a-6198-50d4-b9d3-61d509bf547a","walled":"$L36"}],"$L37","$L38"]