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It therefore locates the main causes outside the individual rather than in internal mental processes."},{"text":"Inside the person: in inherited biology.","correct":false,"explanation":"Inherited biology is emphasised by biological approaches and the nature side of the debate. Behaviourism mainly finds causes outside the person, in environmental experiences and learning."},{"text":"Inside the person: in unconscious conflicts.","correct":false,"explanation":"Unconscious conflicts are central to the psychodynamic approach, not behaviourism. Behaviourists explain behaviour through external environmental causes that can be studied objectively."},{"text":"Inside the person: in conscious decisions.","correct":false,"explanation":"Conscious decision-making is associated with cognitive explanations and free choice. Behaviourism instead focuses mainly on environmental influences outside the person, such as conditioning and reinforcement."}]},{"id":"d66d331e-400b-4671-a1e8-d96b4cea09be","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Behaviourists study [ ] rather than [ ].","back":"Behaviourists study observable behaviour rather than hidden thoughts or unconscious conflicts.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Behaviourists study observable behaviour rather than hidden thoughts or unconscious conflicts.","correct":true,"explanation":"Behaviourists focus on behaviour that can be directly observed and objectively measured. They avoid hidden mental processes because these cannot be independently recorded or verified."},{"text":"Behaviourists study hidden thoughts or unconscious conflicts rather than observable behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the behaviourist position. Behaviourists study observable behaviour, while hidden thoughts and unconscious conflicts are associated more closely with cognitive and psychodynamic approaches."},{"text":"Behaviourists study unconscious conflicts rather than measurable responses to stimuli.","correct":false,"explanation":"Unconscious conflicts are investigated by the psychodynamic approach. Behaviourists instead study observable behaviour, including measurable responses to environmental stimuli."},{"text":"Behaviourists study subjective mental experiences rather than directly observable actions.","correct":false,"explanation":"Subjective mental experiences cannot be directly observed, so traditional behaviourists reject them as scientific evidence. Their focus is observable behaviour rather than hidden thoughts or conflicts."}]},{"id":"0db97b73-da63-4e1e-b9f9-a1b92b2e5cad","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which side of the nature/nurture debate is behaviourism linked to?","back":"Nurture.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Nurture.","correct":true,"explanation":"Behaviourism argues that behaviour is learned through interaction with the environment, including conditioning and reinforcement. It is therefore strongly linked to the nurture side of the debate."},{"text":"Nature.","correct":false,"explanation":"Nature explanations emphasise inherited genes and biological influences. Behaviourism is linked to nurture because it explains behaviour as learned through environmental experience."},{"text":"Both equally.","correct":false,"explanation":"An equal contribution from nature and nurture describes an interactionist position. Traditional behaviourism places its main emphasis on nurture and environmental learning."},{"text":"Neither.","correct":false,"explanation":"Behaviourism takes a clear position in this debate rather than rejecting both sides. Its emphasis on learning and environmental experience links it to nurture."}]},{"id":"ecae16c1-30a9-4cb6-87ef-342e11ce468e","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why is studying observable behaviour seen as scientific?","back":"Observable behaviour can be recorded, counted and compared.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Observable behaviour can be recorded, counted and compared.","correct":true,"explanation":"Directly observable behaviour produces objective, measurable data. Researchers can record, quantify and compare it, allowing findings to be tested, replicated and checked by others."},{"text":"Private thoughts can be inferred, interpreted and compared.","correct":false,"explanation":"Inferences and interpretations about private thoughts may be subjective and cannot be directly verified. Observable behaviour is scientific because it can be recorded, counted and compared objectively."},{"text":"Unconscious processes can be directly recorded, counted and compared.","correct":false,"explanation":"Unconscious processes are hidden and cannot be directly recorded. Behaviourists regard observable behaviour as scientific because researchers can measure and compare it objectively."},{"text":"Self-reported behaviour is always accurate, objective and replicable.","correct":false,"explanation":"Self-reports can be affected by dishonesty, memory errors and social desirability, so they are not always objective. Directly observable behaviour can instead be recorded, counted and compared."}]},{"id":"deae11ed-3c2d-451c-897e-75f5dbe15e75","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"[ ] says behaviour is caused by external environmental forces, not [ ].","back":"Environmental determinism says behaviour is caused by external environmental forces, not free choice.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Environmental determinism says behaviour is caused by external environmental forces, not free choice.","correct":true,"explanation":"Environmental determinism holds that behaviour is controlled by prior environmental causes, such as conditioning and reinforcement, rather than being freely chosen by the individual."},{"text":"Biological determinism says behaviour is caused by external environmental forces, not free choice.","correct":false,"explanation":"Biological determinism attributes behaviour to internal biological factors such as genes, hormones or brain structure. External environmental causation without free choice describes environmental determinism."},{"text":"Environmental determinism says behaviour is caused by external environmental forces, not conditioning.","correct":false,"explanation":"Conditioning is one of the main processes through which the environment determines behaviour, so it is not excluded. Environmental determinism contrasts external causation with free choice."},{"text":"Free will says behaviour is caused by external environmental forces, not free choice.","correct":false,"explanation":"Free will means people can choose their actions, so it cannot describe behaviour as externally caused. That claim belongs to environmental determinism, which rejects free choice."}]},{"id":"879b7854-ea43-49a5-97b8-afa4970e42af","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"A loud noise makes someone flinch: what is the loud noise?","back":"The stimulus.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The stimulus.","correct":true,"explanation":"A stimulus is an event that produces or triggers a response. Here, the loud noise is the stimulus, while the resulting flinch is the response."},{"text":"The response.","correct":false,"explanation":"The response is the behaviour produced by an event, so the flinch is the response. The loud noise that triggers it is the stimulus."},{"text":"The reinforcer.","correct":false,"explanation":"A reinforcer is a consequence that increases the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated. The loud noise instead triggers the flinch, making it the stimulus."},{"text":"The reflex.","correct":false,"explanation":"The reflex is the automatic flinching action produced by the noise. The loud noise itself is the stimulus that triggers this response."}]},{"id":"31ec4662-13fa-43f3-b475-ca31451b1c0f","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"In classical conditioning, a [ ] becomes a [ ] after association.","back":"In classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus after association.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"In classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus after association.","correct":true,"explanation":"A neutral stimulus initially produces no relevant response. After repeated association with an unconditioned stimulus, it becomes a conditioned stimulus capable of producing a conditioned response."},{"text":"In classical conditioning, a conditioned stimulus becomes a neutral stimulus after association.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the conditioning process. Association makes a previously neutral stimulus meaningful, so the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus, not the other way around."},{"text":"In classical conditioning, a neutral response becomes a conditioned response after association.","correct":false,"explanation":"The item that changes status through association is a stimulus, not a response. A neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus and then elicits a conditioned response."},{"text":"In classical conditioning, a unconditioned stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus after association.","correct":false,"explanation":"An unconditioned stimulus already produces a response naturally and does not become conditioned. The previously neutral stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus through association."}]},{"id":"b0ffc422-77a5-45a7-b662-239b1969f3ea","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"In Little Albert, what was the UCS that naturally caused fear?","back":"The loud noise.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The loud noise.","correct":true,"explanation":"The loud noise naturally produced fear without prior learning, so it was the unconditioned stimulus. The fear it caused was the unconditioned response."},{"text":"The white rat.","correct":false,"explanation":"The white rat was initially a neutral stimulus because it did not naturally cause fear. After pairing with the loud noise, it became the conditioned stimulus."},{"text":"The fear response.","correct":false,"explanation":"Fear was the response produced by the loud noise, not the stimulus. The loud noise was the unconditioned stimulus because it naturally triggered that fear."},{"text":"The young child.","correct":false,"explanation":"Albert was the participant who experienced the conditioning procedure, not a stimulus. The loud noise was the unconditioned stimulus because it naturally caused fear."}]},{"id":"6ca3725d-81e6-4806-871b-da60ce53539f","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What did Little Albert’s fear of the rat after pairing show?","back":"Fear can be learned from the environment.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Fear can be learned from the environment.","correct":true,"explanation":"Albert developed fear after the white rat was repeatedly paired with a frightening noise, showing that emotional responses can be acquired through classical conditioning."},{"text":"Fear is always inherited through biology.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reflects the nature-only misconception. Albert’s fear developed after environmental pairing, so the study showed that fear can be learned from the environment."},{"text":"Fear disappears through repeated stimulus pairing.","correct":false,"explanation":"Repeated pairing produced the fear rather than removing it. Little Albert showed that fear can be learned from the environment through classical conditioning."},{"text":"Fear can only be learned through observation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Observational learning was not involved because Albert did not watch a model. His fear was learned from the environment by pairing the rat with a frightening noise."}]},{"id":"7d9289e3-2413-46f8-b138-b69433c3ad2d","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"A learned fear spreads to similar objects: what process is this?","back":"Stimulus generalisation.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Stimulus generalisation.","correct":true,"explanation":"Stimulus generalisation occurs when a conditioned response is produced by stimuli resembling the original conditioned stimulus, as Albert feared other white, furry objects."},{"text":"Stimulus discrimination.","correct":false,"explanation":"Stimulus discrimination means responding only to the specific conditioned stimulus and distinguishing it from similar objects. Spreading a learned fear is stimulus generalisation."},{"text":"Spontaneous recovery.","correct":false,"explanation":"Spontaneous recovery is the return of an extinguished conditioned response after a rest period. Fear spreading to similar objects is stimulus generalisation."},{"text":"Extinction.","correct":false,"explanation":"Extinction is the gradual weakening of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus appears without the unconditioned stimulus. Fear spreading is stimulus generalisation."}]},{"id":"3fa6a949-2946-4337-9086-460c9b9e014d","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Operant conditioning changes behaviour through [ ], such as [ ].","back":"Operant conditioning changes behaviour through consequences, such as reinforcement or punishment.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Operant conditioning changes behaviour through consequences, such as reinforcement or punishment.","correct":true,"explanation":"Operant conditioning links voluntary behaviour to its consequences. Reinforcement increases the likelihood of behaviour, whereas punishment decreases its likelihood."},{"text":"Operant conditioning changes behaviour through antecedents, such as reinforcement or punishment.","correct":false,"explanation":"Reinforcement and punishment occur after behaviour, so they are consequences rather than antecedents. Operant conditioning changes behaviour through consequences such as reinforcement or punishment."},{"text":"Operant conditioning changes behaviour through consequences, such as stimulus generalisation or extinction.","correct":false,"explanation":"Stimulus generalisation and extinction are primarily classical-conditioning processes, not types of operant consequence. Operant conditioning uses consequences such as reinforcement or punishment."},{"text":"Operant conditioning changes behaviour through associations, such as stimulus pairing or generalisation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Pairing stimuli and generalising responses describe classical conditioning. Operant conditioning instead changes behaviour through consequences, specifically reinforcement or punishment."}]},{"id":"2d20706e-334b-4927-9d6c-e69ee56a018b","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"A consequence makes a behaviour more likely to happen again: what is it?","back":"Reinforcement.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Reinforcement.","correct":true,"explanation":"Reinforcement is any consequence that increases the likelihood that the behaviour preceding it will occur again, whether something desirable is added or unpleasant is removed."},{"text":"Punishment.","correct":false,"explanation":"Punishment reduces the future likelihood of a behaviour rather than increasing it. A consequence that makes behaviour more likely to recur is reinforcement."},{"text":"Extinction.","correct":false,"explanation":"Extinction occurs when reinforcement stops and behaviour consequently weakens. A consequence that increases the likelihood of behaviour is reinforcement."},{"text":"Response cost.","correct":false,"explanation":"Response cost removes a desirable stimulus to reduce behaviour, making it a form of negative punishment. Increasing behaviour through a consequence is reinforcement."}]},{"id":"e5d9904e-6cf0-406d-a217-bc48400175c6","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Praise is added after homework and homework increases: what consequence is this?","back":"Positive reinforcement.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Positive reinforcement.","correct":true,"explanation":"Praise is a desirable consequence added after homework, and the homework behaviour increases. Adding a stimulus to strengthen behaviour is positive reinforcement."},{"text":"Negative reinforcement.","correct":false,"explanation":"Negative reinforcement strengthens behaviour by removing something unpleasant. Here, praise is added and homework increases, so the consequence is positive reinforcement."},{"text":"Positive punishment.","correct":false,"explanation":"Positive punishment adds an unpleasant consequence to reduce behaviour. Praise is desirable and increases homework, so it functions as positive reinforcement."},{"text":"Negative punishment.","correct":false,"explanation":"Negative punishment removes something desirable to reduce behaviour. Praise is instead added after homework and increases it, which makes this positive reinforcement."}]},{"id":"4a3197dd-27f2-426d-88a8-0d6ee5201573","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"A catch-up session is avoided after homework and homework increases: what consequence is this?","back":"Negative reinforcement.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Negative reinforcement.","correct":true,"explanation":"Completing homework removes or avoids the unpleasant catch-up session, making homework more likely. Removing an aversive consequence to strengthen behaviour is negative reinforcement."},{"text":"Positive reinforcement.","correct":false,"explanation":"Positive reinforcement requires a desirable stimulus to be added after behaviour. The catch-up session is instead avoided, so this is negative reinforcement."},{"text":"Positive punishment.","correct":false,"explanation":"Positive punishment adds an unpleasant consequence to reduce behaviour. Avoiding the unpleasant catch-up session increases homework, so this is negative reinforcement."},{"text":"Negative punishment.","correct":false,"explanation":"Negative punishment removes something desirable to decrease behaviour. Here, something unpleasant is avoided and homework increases, which defines negative reinforcement."}]},{"id":"c5d303d1-45b7-456c-ac62-04c6574f21fd","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why is negative reinforcement not punishment?","back":"Negative reinforcement removes something unpleasant to increase behaviour.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Negative reinforcement removes something unpleasant to increase behaviour.","correct":true,"explanation":"The word “negative” means removal, not punishment. Negative reinforcement removes an aversive stimulus and thereby increases the likelihood of the preceding behaviour."},{"text":"Negative reinforcement adds something pleasant to increase behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"Adding something pleasant to increase behaviour is positive reinforcement. Negative reinforcement instead removes something unpleasant to increase behaviour."},{"text":"Negative reinforcement removes something pleasant to decrease behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"Removing something pleasant to decrease behaviour is negative punishment. Negative reinforcement removes something unpleasant and makes the behaviour more likely."},{"text":"Negative reinforcement adds something unpleasant to decrease behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"Adding something unpleasant to decrease behaviour is positive punishment. Negative reinforcement removes an unpleasant stimulus to increase the behaviour that produced its removal."}]},{"id":"d9c34bd3-cee5-4946-ac93-1ce5d6d00725","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"In Skinner’s box, what did lever-pressing for food demonstrate?","back":"Consequences can strengthen behaviour.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Consequences can strengthen behaviour.","correct":true,"explanation":"Food followed lever-pressing and made future lever-pressing more likely. This demonstrated operant conditioning, in which reinforcing consequences strengthen behaviour."},{"text":"Consequences can only weaken behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"Consequences do not only weaken behaviour: reinforcement strengthens it, while punishment weakens it. Food increased lever-pressing, showing that consequences can strengthen behaviour."},{"text":"Stimulus pairings can strengthen behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"Stimulus pairing is associated with classical conditioning. Skinner’s rats learned through the food consequence following lever-pressing, showing that consequences can strengthen behaviour."},{"text":"Observation can strengthen behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"Observational learning requires watching and imitating a model, which did not occur in Skinner’s box. Lever-pressing increased because reinforcing consequences can strengthen behaviour."}]},{"id":"4c41742c-19d1-4f1b-84ee-3705f7a90bf4","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Observational learning occurs by watching a [ ] and the [ ] of that behaviour.","back":"Observational learning occurs by watching a model’s behaviour and the consequences of that behaviour.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Observational learning occurs by watching a model’s behaviour and the consequences of that behaviour.","correct":true,"explanation":"Social learning theory proposes that people observe a model’s actions and their consequences, then use this information when deciding whether to imitate the behaviour."},{"text":"Observational learning occurs by watching a learner’s behaviour and the intentions of that behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses observing another person with monitoring the learner’s own behaviour and intentions. Observational learning involves watching a model’s behaviour and the consequences that follow it."},{"text":"Observational learning occurs by watching a model’s thoughts and the causes of that behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"A model’s private thoughts cannot be directly observed, and identifying causes is not the central process. Learners watch a model’s behaviour and its consequences."},{"text":"Observational learning occurs by watching a teacher’s instructions and the repetition of that behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"This mistakes observational learning for direct instruction and repeated practice. It occurs when someone watches a model’s behaviour and observes the consequences of that behaviour."}]},{"id":"8c7d42d3-527f-4d16-8ec0-640a5d3c1554","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Seeing someone else rewarded makes copying more likely: what is this called?","back":"Vicarious reinforcement.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Vicarious reinforcement.","correct":true,"explanation":"Vicarious reinforcement occurs when an observer sees another person rewarded for a behaviour, increasing the observer’s likelihood of imitating that behaviour."},{"text":"Direct reinforcement.","correct":false,"explanation":"Direct reinforcement requires the learner personally to receive a reward. Seeing somebody else rewarded and becoming more likely to imitate them is vicarious reinforcement."},{"text":"Negative reinforcement.","correct":false,"explanation":"Negative reinforcement strengthens behaviour by removing an unpleasant stimulus from the learner. Learning from another person’s reward is instead called vicarious reinforcement."},{"text":"Vicarious punishment.","correct":false,"explanation":"Vicarious punishment occurs when observing another person being punished makes imitation less likely. Observing another person being rewarded is vicarious reinforcement."}]},{"id":"4f895e26-355b-417c-9049-9c40428359f0","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"In Bandura et al. (1961), what happened after children saw an aggressive model?","back":"They showed more aggressive behaviour, including imitation.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They showed more aggressive behaviour, including imitation.","correct":true,"explanation":"Children who observed an aggressive adult model later displayed more aggression and reproduced specific actions, supporting the claim that behaviour can be learned through observation."},{"text":"They showed less aggressive behaviour, including avoidance.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses Bandura’s finding: exposure to the aggressive model did not suppress aggression. The children showed more aggressive behaviour, including imitation of the model’s actions."},{"text":"They showed more cooperative behaviour, including sharing.","correct":false,"explanation":"Cooperation and sharing were not the key effects reported after viewing the aggressive model. Children instead demonstrated more aggressive behaviour, including direct imitation."},{"text":"They showed equal aggressive behaviour, without imitation.","correct":false,"explanation":"The study did not find that modelling had no effect. Children who saw the aggressive model showed more aggression and imitated particular behaviours they had observed."}]},{"id":"219b5cfd-26d9-4c94-8481-8b6204d7c15d","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why is Bandura et al. not pure behaviourism?","back":"Bandura emphasised internal mental processes, such as attention and motivation.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Bandura emphasised internal mental processes, such as attention and motivation.","correct":true,"explanation":"Unlike strict behaviourism, social learning theory includes mediational processes between stimulus and response. Bandura argued that attention and motivation influence whether observed behaviour is imitated."},{"text":"Bandura rejected all forms of learning, such as conditioning and imitation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Bandura did not reject learning; his theory explains learning through observation and imitation. It is not pure behaviourism because it also emphasises internal mental processes."},{"text":"Bandura emphasised unconscious biological instincts, such as aggression and survival.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses social learning theory with instinctive or psychodynamic explanations. Bandura departed from pure behaviourism by including internal mental processes such as attention and motivation."},{"text":"Bandura relied on classical conditioning processes, such as association and extinction.","correct":false,"explanation":"Classical conditioning is a traditional behaviourist explanation and would not make the theory less behaviourist. Bandura instead emphasised internal mental processes, including attention and motivation."}]},{"id":"7f1226d9-6752-46e2-a90e-b22488c65d4a","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"In systematic desensitisation, what is paired with the feared object?","back":"Relaxation.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Relaxation.","correct":true,"explanation":"Systematic desensitisation pairs progressively more threatening versions of the feared stimulus with relaxation, creating a response that is incompatible with anxiety through counterconditioning."},{"text":"Punishment.","correct":false,"explanation":"Punishment aims to reduce behaviour through unpleasant consequences and is not the response paired with the feared stimulus. Systematic desensitisation pairs the stimulus with relaxation."},{"text":"Aversive stimulation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Aversive stimulation is associated with aversion therapy, where undesirable behaviour is paired with discomfort. Systematic desensitisation instead pairs the feared object with relaxation."},{"text":"Uncontrolled anxiety.","correct":false,"explanation":"Producing uncontrolled anxiety resembles flooding rather than gradual desensitisation. In systematic desensitisation, the feared object is paired with relaxation to replace the anxiety response."}]},{"id":"6df2d1d7-6dee-463e-90c7-f4cd934165cf","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"In a token economy, what are desired behaviours rewarded with?","back":"Tokens, later exchanged for privileges or rewards.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Tokens, later exchanged for privileges or rewards.","correct":true,"explanation":"Token economies use secondary reinforcers immediately after desired behaviour. The accumulated tokens can subsequently be exchanged for valued privileges or tangible rewards."},{"text":"Punishments, later exchanged for privileges or rewards.","correct":false,"explanation":"Punishments are intended to reduce unwanted behaviour and cannot function as exchangeable rewards. Desired behaviours receive tokens, which are later traded for privileges or rewards."},{"text":"Privileges, later exchanged for tokens or punishments.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the exchange process. Desired behaviours are initially rewarded with tokens, and those tokens are later exchanged for privileges or other valued rewards."},{"text":"Complaints, later exchanged for privileges or rewards.","correct":false,"explanation":"Complaints are not conditioned reinforcers within a token economy. Staff reward desired behaviours with tokens that can later be exchanged for privileges or rewards."}]},{"id":"8e2a99cf-2383-47ea-80b8-614eb96ec23a","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Behaviourism may be criticised as [ ] because it reduces complex behaviour to [ ].","back":"Behaviourism may be criticised as reductionist because it reduces complex behaviour to stimulus-response learning.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Behaviourism may be criticised as reductionist because it reduces complex behaviour to stimulus-response learning.","correct":true,"explanation":"Behaviourism is described as reductionist because it explains complex human behaviour using relatively simple learning mechanisms, particularly associations between environmental stimuli and behavioural responses."},{"text":"Behaviourism may be criticised as holistic because it reduces complex behaviour to stimulus-response learning.","correct":false,"explanation":"Reducing behaviour to simple components is reductionism, not holism. Behaviourism is criticised as reductionist because it explains complex behaviour primarily through stimulus-response learning."},{"text":"Behaviourism may be criticised as reductionist because it reduces complex behaviour to unconscious conflict.","correct":false,"explanation":"Unconscious conflict belongs to psychodynamic explanations rather than behaviourism. The reductionist criticism concerns behaviourism’s tendency to explain complex behaviour through stimulus-response learning."},{"text":"Behaviourism may be criticised as deterministic because it reduces complex behaviour to free personal choices.","correct":false,"explanation":"Free personal choice conflicts with determinism and is not behaviourism’s basic explanatory mechanism. The relevant criticism is reductionism because behaviour is reduced to stimulus-response learning."}]},{"id":"18d551c0-2ec8-48b5-ac56-2536789e5aee","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Why would Little Albert breach modern ethical standards on consent?","back":"Albert could not give informed consent.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Albert could not give informed consent.","correct":true,"explanation":"As an infant, Albert could not understand the procedure, risks or his participation sufficiently to consent. Modern research would therefore require valid informed consent from a responsible adult."},{"text":"Albert could not maintain researcher confidentiality.","correct":false,"explanation":"Confidentiality is the researchers’ responsibility, not the infant participant’s. The consent problem was that Albert could not understand the study and provide informed consent."},{"text":"Albert could not provide a debriefing statement.","correct":false,"explanation":"Researchers provide a debrief to participants; participants do not produce one themselves. The relevant consent breach is that Albert could not give informed consent."},{"text":"Albert could not guarantee experimental reliability.","correct":false,"explanation":"Reliability concerns whether findings can be replicated and is not something a participant guarantees. The ethical consent issue was Albert’s inability to give informed consent."}]},{"id":"2c4d7fe7-02dc-42e6-b102-0d9aca91e274","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Behaviourism explains behaviour through [ ], whereas psychodynamic psychology explains it through [ ].","back":"Behaviourism explains behaviour through external learning, whereas psychodynamic psychology explains it through internal unconscious conflict.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Behaviourism explains behaviour through external learning, whereas psychodynamic psychology explains it through internal unconscious conflict.","correct":true,"explanation":"Behaviourists emphasise conditioning and other learning experiences in the environment, while psychodynamic psychologists argue that behaviour arises from conflicts operating within the unconscious mind."},{"text":"Behaviourism explains behaviour through external learning, whereas psychodynamic psychology explains it through internal conscious conflict.","correct":false,"explanation":"Psychodynamic theory does not primarily attribute behaviour to conscious conflict. It emphasises internal unconscious conflict, while behaviourism explains behaviour through learning from the external environment."},{"text":"Behaviourism explains behaviour through internal unconscious conflict, whereas psychodynamic psychology explains it through external learning.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the two explanations. Behaviourism focuses on external learning through conditioning, whereas psychodynamic psychology focuses on internal unconscious conflicts and drives."},{"text":"Behaviourism explains behaviour through biological inheritance, whereas psychodynamic psychology explains it through internal unconscious conflict.","correct":false,"explanation":"Biological inheritance belongs primarily to the biological approach, not behaviourism. Behaviourism explains behaviour through external learning, while psychodynamic psychology emphasises internal unconscious conflict."}]},{"id":"43e53340-187f-4b03-868a-bf39e0246c9c","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What assumption is shared by behaviourist and psychodynamic perspectives?","back":"Both can be seen as deterministic.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Both can be seen as deterministic.","correct":true,"explanation":"Both approaches suggest that behaviour is caused by forces outside conscious control: environmental conditioning for behaviourists and unconscious drives and childhood experiences for psychodynamic psychologists."},{"text":"Both can be seen as holistic.","correct":false,"explanation":"Behaviourism is generally regarded as reductionist because it reduces behaviour to learned stimulus-response associations. The shared assumption is determinism, as both approaches emphasise causes outside conscious control."},{"text":"Both can be seen as humanistic.","correct":false,"explanation":"Humanistic psychology emphasises personal agency and free will, unlike these approaches. Behaviourist and psychodynamic perspectives can both be seen as deterministic because they propose controlling causes of behaviour."},{"text":"Both can be seen as non-scientific.","correct":false,"explanation":"Behaviourism strongly values objective, controlled scientific methods, although psychodynamic evidence is often criticised. Their shared assumption is determinism, not a rejection of scientific investigation."}]}]}],"examCountdown":{"examDate":"2027-05-10","paperLabel":"Paper 1"},"heading":"Behaviourist","title":"Behaviourist Flashcards","topbar":{"backHref":"/as-level/psychology/ocr/flashcards"},"topicSidebar":"$L36"}]}],"topicId":"b2337f04-26cf-5a6c-835e-529778379ddc","walled":"$L37"}],"$L38","$L39"]