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distress as arising from psychological learning, thinking, relationships or social circumstances rather than automatically interpreting it as evidence of biological illness."},{"text":"They explain distress by assuming it is mainly a physical disease.","correct":false,"explanation":"Treating distress primarily as a bodily illness describes the medical model itself. Alternatives explain distress without assuming it is mainly a physical disease."},{"text":"They explain distress by identifying an underlying biological abnormality.","correct":false,"explanation":"Although alternatives may consider symptoms, identifying biological abnormalities remains characteristic of the medical model. The key shift is explaining distress without assuming a physical disease."},{"text":"They explain distress by assigning it to a diagnostic category.","correct":false,"explanation":"Grouping symptoms into diagnostic categories is central to the medical model rather than an alternative to it. Alternatives do not assume distress is mainly a physical disease."}]},{"id":"ea2293e4-452a-49d0-8755-cf44a0905887","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"The medical model explains mental disorders through symptoms, diagnoses and underlying [ ].","back":"The medical model explains mental disorders through symptoms, diagnoses and underlying biological causes.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"biological causes","correct":true,"explanation":"The medical model views mental disorders as illnesses whose observable symptoms arise from underlying biological factors, such as genes, brain structures or neurochemical activity."},{"text":"environmental consequences","correct":false,"explanation":"Environmental consequences are central to behaviourist explanations, not the medical model. The medical model attributes symptoms and diagnoses to underlying biological causes."},{"text":"maladaptive thoughts","correct":false,"explanation":"Maladaptive thought patterns belong to cognitive explanations of psychological distress. The medical model instead seeks underlying biological causes for diagnosed symptoms."},{"text":"unconscious conflicts","correct":false,"explanation":"Unconscious conflicts are proposed by the psychodynamic approach rather than the medical model. Medical explanations connect symptoms and diagnoses to underlying biological causes."}]},{"id":"d544aa25-455d-406f-8670-5eb82b328d77","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which approach explains symptoms as learned maladaptive behaviours?","back":"The behaviourist approach.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The behaviourist approach.","correct":true,"explanation":"Behaviourism proposes that abnormal responses are acquired and maintained through learning processes, particularly classical conditioning, operant conditioning and observation."},{"text":"The cognitive approach.","correct":false,"explanation":"The cognitive approach explains symptoms through distorted or maladaptive thinking. Learned maladaptive behaviours are specifically the focus of the behaviourist approach."},{"text":"The psychodynamic approach.","correct":false,"explanation":"The psychodynamic approach traces symptoms to unconscious conflicts and early experiences, rather than explaining them primarily as behaviours acquired through learning."},{"text":"The biological approach.","correct":false,"explanation":"The biological approach explains symptoms using genes, neurochemistry and brain functioning. The behaviourist approach instead regards symptoms as learned maladaptive behaviours."}]},{"id":"ed129486-c699-4a07-8d06-7fc639133873","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Classical conditioning is learning by [ ]; operant conditioning is learning through [ ].","back":"Classical conditioning is learning by association; operant conditioning is learning through consequences.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Classical conditioning is learning by association; operant conditioning is learning through consequences.","correct":true,"explanation":"Classical conditioning forms associations between stimuli, whereas operant conditioning changes behaviour according to its consequences, including reinforcement and punishment."},{"text":"Classical conditioning is learning by observation; operant conditioning is learning through consequences.","correct":false,"explanation":"Observation is the basis of social learning, not classical conditioning. Classical conditioning occurs through association, while operant conditioning occurs through consequences."},{"text":"Classical conditioning is learning by association; operant conditioning is learning through insight.","correct":false,"explanation":"Association correctly describes classical conditioning, but insight is not the defining mechanism of operant conditioning. Operant behaviour is learned through its consequences."},{"text":"Classical conditioning is learning by imitation; operant conditioning is learning through inheritance.","correct":false,"explanation":"Imitation belongs to social learning, while biological inheritance is not a conditioning process. Classical conditioning uses association and operant conditioning uses consequences."}]},{"id":"e42e2581-1c82-4c03-8551-3b6b1a8bcf2f","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"In a dog phobia, how can classical conditioning create fear?","back":"The dog becomes associated with the fear from being bitten.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The dog becomes associated with the fear from being bitten.","correct":true,"explanation":"The dog begins as a neutral stimulus but becomes associated with the pain and fear caused by the bite, so the dog later triggers fear alone."},{"text":"The dog becomes associated with the relief from escaping it.","correct":false,"explanation":"Relief from escaping a dog can reinforce avoidance, but this maintains an existing phobia rather than classically conditioning its initial fear. The dog becomes associated with fear from the bite."},{"text":"The dog becomes associated with fear through repeated avoidance.","correct":false,"explanation":"Repeated avoidance is an operant mechanism that maintains fear by preventing corrective learning. Classical conditioning initially creates the phobia by associating the dog with fear from being bitten."},{"text":"The dog becomes associated with praise after showing fear.","correct":false,"explanation":"Praise would normally be a rewarding consequence and does not explain fear acquisition through classical conditioning. The dog becomes associated with the fear produced by being bitten."}]},{"id":"92000e5c-50f2-465e-886a-40fbde7b715a","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What process explains fear spreading from one dog to other dogs?","back":"Generalisation.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Generalisation.","correct":true,"explanation":"Generalisation occurs when a conditioned response is produced by stimuli resembling the original conditioned stimulus, so fear of one dog spreads to other dogs."},{"text":"Discrimination.","correct":false,"explanation":"Discrimination means responding differently to similar stimuli, such as fearing only the dog that bit. Fear spreading to other dogs is generalisation."},{"text":"Extinction.","correct":false,"explanation":"Extinction is the gradual weakening of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus appears without the feared outcome. Spreading fear to similar dogs is generalisation."},{"text":"Spontaneous recovery.","correct":false,"explanation":"Spontaneous recovery is the return of an extinguished conditioned response after a rest period. Fear extending from one dog to others is generalisation."}]},{"id":"cd0c1f2d-755e-4f60-a774-4292615912c7","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Avoidance is maintained by [ ] because it removes [ ].","back":"Avoidance is maintained by negative reinforcement because it removes anxiety.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Avoidance is maintained by negative reinforcement because it removes anxiety.","correct":true,"explanation":"Escaping or avoiding the feared stimulus reduces anxiety. Removing this unpleasant state rewards the avoidance response, making that response more likely to occur again."},{"text":"Avoidance is maintained by positive reinforcement because it removes anxiety.","correct":false,"explanation":"Avoidance does not add a desirable reward, so it is not positive reinforcement. It is negatively reinforced because avoiding the feared stimulus removes anxiety."},{"text":"Avoidance is maintained by negative reinforcement because it removes reward.","correct":false,"explanation":"Negative reinforcement strengthens avoidance by removing an unpleasant state, not a desirable reward. The removed state is anxiety, which makes avoidance more likely to recur."},{"text":"Avoidance is maintained by punishment because it removes anxiety.","correct":false,"explanation":"Punishment aims to weaken behaviour, whereas avoidance becomes more frequent. It is maintained by negative reinforcement because performing it removes anxiety."}]},{"id":"ce81e3b1-af88-448f-944e-9b36cfeb48a3","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why is negative reinforcement not punishment?","back":"It strengthens behaviour by removing something unpleasant.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It strengthens behaviour by removing something unpleasant.","correct":true,"explanation":"Negative reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behaviour because performing it removes or prevents an aversive stimulus, whereas punishment is intended to reduce behaviour."},{"text":"It weakens behaviour by removing something unpleasant.","correct":false,"explanation":"Removing something unpleasant makes the preceding behaviour more likely, not less likely. Negative reinforcement therefore strengthens behaviour, which distinguishes it from punishment."},{"text":"It strengthens behaviour by adding something unpleasant.","correct":false,"explanation":"Adding an unpleasant consequence is positive punishment and should weaken behaviour. Negative reinforcement instead strengthens behaviour by removing something unpleasant."},{"text":"It weakens behaviour by adding something unpleasant.","correct":false,"explanation":"Weakening behaviour by adding an unpleasant consequence describes positive punishment. Negative reinforcement is different because it strengthens behaviour by removing something unpleasant."}]},{"id":"5ebf5cfc-256e-4b84-a075-dfa9bd168e04","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How can social learning strengthen a dog phobia?","back":"The child observes and imitates a parent panicking around dogs.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The child observes and imitates a parent panicking around dogs.","correct":true,"explanation":"Social learning occurs when the child observes the parent’s fearful response and models it, so the parent’s panic strengthens the child’s learned fear of dogs."},{"text":"The child inherits the genes of a parent panicking around dogs.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses social learning with genetic inheritance. Social learning strengthens the phobia when the child observes and imitates a parent’s fearful behaviour around dogs."},{"text":"The child represses unconscious conflict with a parent panicking around dogs.","correct":false,"explanation":"Repression and unconscious conflict belong to the psychodynamic approach. Social learning instead occurs when the child observes and imitates the parent’s panic around dogs."},{"text":"The child challenges the irrational beliefs of a parent panicking around dogs.","correct":false,"explanation":"Challenging irrational beliefs would be a cognitive technique and should reduce fear. Social learning strengthens the phobia through observing and imitating the parent’s panic."}]},{"id":"5b7e2af8-e5bb-4387-94be-ec62699388d2","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why is the behaviourist explanation considered scientific?","back":"It studies observable behaviour and testable learning processes.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It studies observable behaviour and testable learning processes.","correct":true,"explanation":"Observable behaviour can be objectively measured, while learning processes can be tested under controlled conditions. This makes behaviourist explanations open to empirical investigation and replication."},{"text":"It studies unconscious conflicts and hidden childhood experiences.","correct":false,"explanation":"Unconscious conflicts are difficult to observe or test objectively and are associated with psychodynamic explanations. Behaviourism is scientific because it examines observable behaviour and testable learning processes."},{"text":"It studies subjective experiences and untestable personal meanings.","correct":false,"explanation":"Subjective meanings are difficult to measure reliably, so this would not establish scientific status. Behaviourism focuses on observable behaviour and learning processes that can be empirically tested."},{"text":"It studies unique individuals and rejects controlled experiments.","correct":false,"explanation":"Rejecting controlled experiments would reduce objectivity and replicability. Behaviourism is considered scientific because observable behaviour and learning processes can be measured and tested under controlled conditions."}]},{"id":"46de9605-edbb-4e79-b8c6-b8b8110cbf02","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What is one reductionist limitation of the behaviourist explanation?","back":"It may oversimplify illness by reducing it to learning.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It may oversimplify illness by reducing it to learning.","correct":true,"explanation":"Behaviourism can be reductionist because it explains complex mental illnesses mainly through conditioning and observation, potentially neglecting interacting cognitive, biological and social influences."},{"text":"It may overcomplicate illness by combining many explanations.","correct":false,"explanation":"Combining multiple explanations would be holistic rather than reductionist. The limitation is that behaviourism may oversimplify mental illness by reducing it primarily to learned behaviour."},{"text":"It may individualise illness by examining each unique experience.","correct":false,"explanation":"An individualised account would not describe behaviourist reductionism. The behaviourist explanation may instead oversimplify mental illness by reducing complex symptoms and causes to learning processes."},{"text":"It may broaden illness by including interacting influences.","correct":false,"explanation":"Including interacting influences would make an explanation less reductionist. Behaviourism is criticised for potentially oversimplifying mental illness by reducing it to conditioning and other learning processes."}]},{"id":"7b8b35b3-b49f-4cf8-9fce-16aa0df6ae50","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"The cognitive approach explains mental illness through [ ], such as thoughts, beliefs and interpretations.","back":"The cognitive approach explains mental illness through internal mental processes, such as thoughts, beliefs and interpretations.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"internal mental processes","correct":true,"explanation":"The cognitive approach focuses on internal mental processes, including thoughts, beliefs and interpretations, and explains how distorted or irrational cognition can contribute to mental illness."},{"text":"external social pressures","correct":false,"explanation":"External social pressures may affect mental health, but they are not the cognitive approach’s central focus. Cognitive explanations emphasise internal mental processes such as beliefs and interpretations."},{"text":"inherited biological abnormalities","correct":false,"explanation":"Inherited abnormalities belong to biological explanations of mental illness. The cognitive approach instead examines internal mental processes, including the person’s thoughts, beliefs and interpretations."},{"text":"unconscious childhood conflicts","correct":false,"explanation":"Unconscious childhood conflicts are central to psychodynamic explanations rather than cognitive ones. The cognitive approach explains mental illness through internal mental processes such as thoughts and beliefs."}]},{"id":"b445aa4f-dff0-46a9-b672-2104971913c3","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How can a negative self-schema affect interpretation of setbacks?","back":"Setbacks are interpreted as proof the person is worthless.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Setbacks are interpreted as proof the person is worthless.","correct":true,"explanation":"A negative self-schema biases information processing, causing setbacks to be treated as evidence of personal worthlessness and reinforcing an already negative view of the self."},{"text":"Setbacks are interpreted as proof the person is highly capable.","correct":false,"explanation":"Viewing setbacks as evidence of high capability reflects a positive rather than negative self-schema. A negative self-schema makes setbacks seem like proof that the person is worthless."},{"text":"Setbacks are interpreted as proof the situation is completely harmless.","correct":false,"explanation":"Judging the situation harmless concerns perceptions of external threat, not a negative view of the self. A negative self-schema interprets setbacks as proof of personal worthlessness."},{"text":"Setbacks are interpreted as proof other people are entirely responsible.","correct":false,"explanation":"Blaming others shifts responsibility away from the self and does not show a negative self-schema. Such a schema instead makes setbacks seem like proof that the person is worthless."}]},{"id":"ed58a821-0a88-406a-8446-9e8547309742","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"In the ABC model, what links the activating event to the consequence?","back":"The person’s belief about the event.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The person’s belief about the event.","correct":true,"explanation":"In Ellis’s ABC model, the activating event produces a consequence through the person’s belief about it. Irrational beliefs can therefore generate unhealthy emotional or behavioural consequences."},{"text":"The person’s behaviour after the event.","correct":false,"explanation":"Behaviour following the event is part of the consequence rather than the connecting stage. In the ABC model, the person’s belief about the activating event produces the consequence."},{"text":"The person’s biological response to the event.","correct":false,"explanation":"A biological response is not the mediating component in the cognitive ABC model. The activating event leads to its emotional or behavioural consequence through the person’s belief."},{"text":"The event’s objective severity for the person.","correct":false,"explanation":"The ABC model rejects the idea that an event’s objective severity directly determines the consequence. The person’s belief and interpretation of the event provide the crucial link."}]},{"id":"78a08e13-c245-4743-a136-ada12a6e1794","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Anxiety may involve overestimating [ ] and underestimating [ ].","back":"Anxiety may involve overestimating danger and underestimating coping ability.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Anxiety may involve overestimating danger and underestimating coping ability.","correct":true,"explanation":"Anxious thinking exaggerates the threat posed by a situation while minimising the person’s perceived ability to manage it, making the situation appear more overwhelming."},{"text":"Anxiety may involve overestimating safety and underestimating coping ability.","correct":false,"explanation":"Overestimating safety would make a situation seem less threatening rather than increase anxiety. Anxiety typically involves overestimating danger while underestimating one’s ability to cope."},{"text":"Anxiety may involve overestimating danger and underestimating threat likelihood.","correct":false,"explanation":"Underestimating the likelihood of a threat would usually reduce anxious expectations. Anxiety instead combines an overestimation of danger with an underestimation of personal coping ability."},{"text":"Anxiety may involve overestimating coping ability and underestimating danger.","correct":false,"explanation":"Both relationships are reversed here and would make the individual feel safer and more capable. Anxiety involves overestimating danger and underestimating coping ability."}]},{"id":"732e98ef-662a-42df-9094-c7824834c0c5","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why can the cognitive approach explain different reactions to the same event?","back":"People have different beliefs and interpretations.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"People have different beliefs and interpretations.","correct":true,"explanation":"The cognitive approach argues that emotional and behavioural responses depend on how an event is interpreted. Different beliefs therefore produce different reactions to the same situation."},{"text":"People have different genes and neurotransmitter levels.","correct":false,"explanation":"Genes and neurotransmitters belong to biological explanations rather than the cognitive approach. Cognitive theory explains different reactions through differences in people’s beliefs and interpretations."},{"text":"People have different reinforcement and punishment histories.","correct":false,"explanation":"Reinforcement and punishment histories provide a behaviourist explanation for individual differences. The cognitive approach specifically attributes different reactions to different beliefs and interpretations."},{"text":"People have different unconscious conflicts and defence mechanisms.","correct":false,"explanation":"Unconscious conflicts and defence mechanisms are psychodynamic concepts. The cognitive approach explains contrasting reactions by proposing that people hold different beliefs and interpret events differently."}]},{"id":"3fa722a2-c408-46bc-92dd-6db190131686","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What cause-and-effect issue limits cognitive explanations?","back":"Negative thoughts may cause distress or result from it.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Negative thoughts may cause distress or result from it.","correct":true,"explanation":"The direction of causality is unclear: maladaptive thoughts might produce psychological distress, but experiencing distress could also generate negative patterns of thinking."},{"text":"Negative thoughts always cause distress rather than result from it.","correct":false,"explanation":"This assumes a one-way causal relationship without supporting evidence. Negative thoughts may cause distress, but they may instead develop as a consequence of distress."},{"text":"Negative thoughts always result from distress rather than cause it.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the cognitive explanation and makes another unsupported one-way claim. Negative thoughts may result from distress, but they could also contribute to causing it."},{"text":"Negative thoughts may cause brain damage or result from it.","correct":false,"explanation":"The cause-and-effect issue concerns the relationship between negative thinking and psychological distress, not brain damage. Either negative thoughts or distress could come first."}]},{"id":"3f26e0d0-89d0-4e15-bc66-7b1516358523","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Rogers argued people have a natural drive towards [ ], meaning fulfilling their potential.","back":"Rogers argued people have a natural drive towards self-actualisation, meaning fulfilling their potential.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"self-actualisation","correct":true,"explanation":"Self-actualisation is the innate human drive to develop, grow and fulfil one’s potential, according to Rogers’ humanistic approach."},{"text":"self-efficacy","correct":false,"explanation":"Self-efficacy is a person’s belief in their ability to succeed at a task. Rogers called the natural drive to fulfil one’s potential self-actualisation."},{"text":"self-concept","correct":false,"explanation":"Self-concept is the individual’s perception of who they currently are. The natural drive towards fulfilling personal potential is called self-actualisation."},{"text":"self-disclosure","correct":false,"explanation":"Self-disclosure means revealing personal information to another person, often within relationships or therapy. Rogers used self-actualisation for the drive to fulfil one’s potential."}]},{"id":"be231d8a-c7bb-452d-8a8d-db9976c040eb","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How can incongruence cause mental distress?","back":"A mismatch between self-concept and ideal self blocks growth.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A mismatch between self-concept and ideal self blocks growth.","correct":true,"explanation":"Incongruence occurs when a person’s perceived current self differs from their ideal self. This mismatch obstructs self-actualisation and can produce psychological distress."},{"text":"A match between self-concept and ideal self blocks growth.","correct":false,"explanation":"A close match is congruence and should support healthy development rather than block it. Distress arises when the self-concept and ideal self do not match."},{"text":"A mismatch between self-concept and ideal self promotes growth.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses incongruence with a positive motivation for development. Rogers argued that the mismatch blocks growth and can cause distress rather than promoting self-actualisation."},{"text":"A mismatch between conditions of worth and ideal self blocks growth.","correct":false,"explanation":"Conditions of worth are expectations attached to receiving approval, not the person’s current identity. Incongruence specifically involves a mismatch between self-concept and ideal self."}]},{"id":"fd4b672d-44a1-4f13-98b8-f960ac489bca","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What are conditions of worth?","back":"Expectations someone feels they must meet to be accepted or loved.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Expectations someone feels they must meet to be accepted or loved.","correct":true,"explanation":"Conditions of worth arise when approval appears conditional, so a person believes they must satisfy particular expectations to receive acceptance or love."},{"text":"Expectations someone feels they must meet to become fully self-actualised.","correct":false,"explanation":"Self-actualisation is the fulfilment of potential, not approval earned by meeting demands. Conditions of worth are expectations a person associates with being accepted or loved."},{"text":"Expectations someone feels others must meet to be accepted or loved.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses who must satisfy the expectations. Conditions of worth are requirements individuals believe they themselves must meet to gain acceptance or love from others."},{"text":"Expectations someone feels they must reject to be accepted or loved.","correct":false,"explanation":"Conditions of worth involve complying with perceived expectations, not rejecting them. The person believes meeting these requirements is necessary to receive acceptance or love."}]},{"id":"8a0229d4-4cdd-46c0-9a3d-979b946fb7e1","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Humanistic explanations are harder to test because ideas like [ ] and [ ] are subjective.","back":"Humanistic explanations are harder to test because ideas like self-actualisation and incongruence are subjective.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Humanistic explanations are harder to test because ideas like self-actualisation and incongruence are subjective.","correct":true,"explanation":"Self-actualisation and incongruence describe personal experiences that are difficult to define and measure objectively, limiting scientific testing of humanistic explanations."},{"text":"Humanistic explanations are harder to test because ideas like classical conditioning and operant conditioning are subjective.","correct":false,"explanation":"Classical and operant conditioning are behaviourist concepts that can be investigated through observable, controlled procedures. The subjective humanistic concepts are self-actualisation and incongruence."},{"text":"Humanistic explanations are harder to test because ideas like self-actualisation and negative reinforcement are subjective.","correct":false,"explanation":"Negative reinforcement is a behaviourist process that can be operationalised through observable changes in behaviour. The two subjective humanistic ideas are self-actualisation and incongruence."},{"text":"Humanistic explanations are harder to test because ideas like cognitive distortion and incongruence are subjective.","correct":false,"explanation":"Cognitive distortion belongs to the cognitive approach rather than Rogers’ humanistic explanation. The relevant subjective concepts are self-actualisation and incongruence."}]},{"id":"1a7d7cb7-4de5-4f51-b2e9-daae522670e5","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What did Szasz mean by calling mental illness a “myth”?","back":"It is not a literal bodily disease, though suffering is real.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It is not a literal bodily disease, though suffering is real.","correct":true,"explanation":"Szasz argued that mental illness lacks the identifiable physical pathology of bodily disease. He did not deny genuine suffering, but disputed classifying it as literal illness."},{"text":"It is always a literal bodily disease, though suffering is real.","correct":false,"explanation":"This states the opposite of Szasz’s argument. He regarded mental illness as a metaphor rather than a literal bodily disease, while acknowledging that people genuinely suffer."},{"text":"It is not a genuine human experience, though suffering is real.","correct":false,"explanation":"Szasz did not deny that distressing human experiences occur. His objection was to treating these experiences as literal bodily diseases when no physical pathology is identifiable."},{"text":"It is not a literal social problem, though suffering is real.","correct":false,"explanation":"Szasz often understood psychological difficulties as problems in living shaped by choices and social expectations. He rejected their classification as literal bodily diseases, not social problems."}]},{"id":"c0a0ecd3-2590-4021-ada9-f87350fa021d","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"When would Szasz treat a problem as medical or neurological?","back":"When there is clear brain pathology, such as tumour or damage.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"When there is clear brain pathology, such as tumour or damage.","correct":true,"explanation":"Szasz accepted a medical or neurological classification when identifiable physical pathology, such as a tumour or brain damage, explains the person’s difficulties."},{"text":"When there is clear social deviance, such as crime or rebellion.","correct":false,"explanation":"Unconventional or socially disapproved behaviour does not establish disease. Szasz reserved medical or neurological explanations for cases involving demonstrable brain pathology, such as damage or a tumour."},{"text":"When there is clear emotional distress, such as sadness or anxiety.","correct":false,"explanation":"Distress alone does not demonstrate a bodily disease in Szasz’s account. Medical classification requires identifiable brain pathology, such as a tumour or physical damage."},{"text":"When there is clear irrational thinking, such as delusion or confusion.","correct":false,"explanation":"Unusual beliefs or confused thinking do not by themselves prove neurological illness. Szasz required evidence of physical brain pathology before treating a problem as medical."}]},{"id":"79a534d6-3e36-4248-a2eb-1a3ec481055c","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What did Szasz mean by “problems in living”?","back":"Difficulties with relationships, choices, values and social expectations.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Difficulties with relationships, choices, values and social expectations.","correct":true,"explanation":"Szasz used “problems in living” for genuine struggles arising from personal decisions, relationships, values and social demands rather than literal bodily diseases."},{"text":"Difficulties with neurons, synapses, hormones and brain structures.","correct":false,"explanation":"These are possible biological mechanisms or pathologies, not what Szasz meant by problems in living. His phrase referred to relationships, choices, values and social expectations."},{"text":"Difficulties with memory, attention, perception and language processing.","correct":false,"explanation":"These are cognitive functions and may be affected by neurological disorders. Szasz’s problems in living concerned relationships, personal choices, values and social expectations."},{"text":"Difficulties with conditioning, reinforcement, punishment and learned responses.","correct":false,"explanation":"These are concepts from behaviourism rather than Szasz’s account. Problems in living are difficulties involving relationships, choices, values and social expectations."}]},{"id":"5b519643-3bd2-472b-8c11-49e9e9a23b28","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why did Szasz criticise medicalisation?","back":"Psychiatric labels can justify coercion, such as involuntary treatment.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Psychiatric labels can justify coercion, such as involuntary treatment.","correct":true,"explanation":"Szasz argued that medical labels give professionals authority to control people whose behaviour is judged abnormal, including treating them without their voluntary consent."},{"text":"Psychiatric labels can ensure recovery, such as through effective medication.","correct":false,"explanation":"This describes a possible benefit of diagnosis rather than Szasz’s criticism. He objected that psychiatric labels can legitimise coercion, including involuntary treatment."},{"text":"Psychiatric labels can prevent research, such as investigations into biological causes.","correct":false,"explanation":"Szasz’s concern was not that diagnosis prevents scientific research. He criticised medicalisation because psychiatric labels may justify coercion, such as treatment imposed without consent."},{"text":"Psychiatric labels can reduce stigma, such as discrimination against patients.","correct":false,"explanation":"Reduced stigma would be a potential advantage of medicalisation, not Szasz’s objection. His criticism was that labels can authorise coercion, including involuntary treatment."}]},{"id":"b7dc4daf-7c5f-4410-b6d5-6f1a3ab6f1ed","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What limitation of Szasz relates to treatment access?","back":"Diagnosis can help people access support.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Diagnosis can help people access support.","correct":true,"explanation":"Although Szasz criticised psychiatric diagnosis, receiving a diagnosis can make people eligible for professional treatment, educational adjustments, benefits and other forms of support."},{"text":"Diagnosis can help people avoid treatment.","correct":false,"explanation":"Diagnosis generally facilitates treatment rather than helping people avoid it. A limitation of Szasz’s position is that diagnosis can provide access to valuable support."},{"text":"Diagnosis can help people conceal symptoms.","correct":false,"explanation":"A diagnosis names and records symptoms rather than concealing them. The relevant limitation is that rejecting diagnosis may prevent people from accessing appropriate support."},{"text":"Diagnosis can help people escape responsibility.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reflects a common criticism about diagnostic labels excusing behaviour, but it is not the treatment-access limitation. Diagnosis can help people obtain necessary support."}]},{"id":"176dcad5-f83f-42e5-b150-f7c9f839a70b","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why is Szasz’s work socially sensitive?","back":"If misunderstood, it may make mental illness seem less real.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"If misunderstood, it may make mental illness seem less real.","correct":true,"explanation":"Szasz’s claim that mental illness is a myth could be misinterpreted as denying genuine distress, potentially invalidating patients’ experiences and reinforcing harmful attitudes."},{"text":"If misunderstood, it may make mental illness seem more biological.","correct":false,"explanation":"Szasz challenged the biological medical model rather than strengthening it. The social sensitivity arises because his ideas may be misread as suggesting mental illness is not real."},{"text":"If misunderstood, it may make mental illness seem more treatable.","correct":false,"explanation":"Presenting disorders as treatable would not capture the main social sensitivity. Szasz’s argument may instead be misinterpreted as denying that mental illness is real."},{"text":"If misunderstood, it may make mental illness seem less stigmatised.","correct":false,"explanation":"Reducing stigma would be socially beneficial, whereas the concern is potential harm. Misunderstanding Szasz may make mental illness seem less real and invalidate sufferers."}]},{"id":"cd6b456c-ffac-4453-97f9-32def0bebb72","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What non-biological treatment is used for specific phobia in these notes?","back":"Systematic desensitisation.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Systematic desensitisation.","correct":true,"explanation":"Systematic desensitisation is a behavioural treatment for specific phobias that gradually exposes clients to feared stimuli while they practise relaxation."},{"text":"Electroconvulsive therapy.","correct":false,"explanation":"Electroconvulsive therapy is a biological intervention mainly associated with severe depression, not the non-biological phobia treatment identified here. The answer is systematic desensitisation."},{"text":"Drug therapy.","correct":false,"explanation":"Drug therapy is a biological treatment and may only manage anxiety symptoms. The non-biological treatment specified for specific phobia is systematic desensitisation."},{"text":"Psychosurgery.","correct":false,"explanation":"Psychosurgery is an invasive biological intervention and is not a standard treatment for specific phobia. The notes identify systematic desensitisation as the non-biological treatment."}]},{"id":"600b22f7-5ee7-473f-b2f3-b8567456f100","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Systematic desensitisation uses [ ] to replace fear with calmness.","back":"Systematic desensitisation uses counterconditioning to replace fear with calmness.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"counterconditioning","correct":true,"explanation":"Counterconditioning replaces the learned fear response with an incompatible relaxation response, so the feared stimulus gradually becomes associated with calmness instead of anxiety."},{"text":"operant conditioning","correct":false,"explanation":"Operant conditioning changes behaviour through reinforcement or punishment, rather than replacing fear with relaxation. Systematic desensitisation uses counterconditioning to establish calmness."},{"text":"stimulus generalisation","correct":false,"explanation":"Stimulus generalisation spreads a learned response to similar stimuli and can help explain phobia development. Counterconditioning instead replaces fear with a calm response."},{"text":"negative reinforcement","correct":false,"explanation":"Negative reinforcement strengthens avoidance because escaping fear removes discomfort; it can maintain phobias. Systematic desensitisation instead uses counterconditioning to replace fear with calmness."}]},{"id":"1e1a458e-cf50-4a75-9447-f120fc7ec2b3","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What is the anxiety hierarchy in systematic desensitisation?","back":"A list from least frightening to most frightening stimuli.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A list from least frightening to most frightening stimuli.","correct":true,"explanation":"The client ranks phobic situations by increasing anxiety, beginning with the least frightening and progressing gradually towards the most frightening stimulus."},{"text":"A list from most frightening to least frightening stimuli.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the hierarchy and would begin with excessive anxiety. Systematic desensitisation orders stimuli from least frightening to most frightening for gradual exposure."},{"text":"A list from most relaxing to least relaxing stimuli.","correct":false,"explanation":"The hierarchy ranks feared situations by the anxiety they produce, not relaxation exercises. It runs from the least frightening to the most frightening stimulus."},{"text":"A list from most familiar to least familiar stimuli.","correct":false,"explanation":"Familiarity is not the ranking criterion, because familiar situations may still provoke intense fear. The hierarchy orders stimuli from least frightening to most frightening."}]},{"id":"7df8e05d-7ec1-4d69-8a5f-2f4fa80ddc3f","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How does reciprocal inhibition help systematic desensitisation?","back":"Fear and calmness cannot easily occur together.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Fear and calmness cannot easily occur together.","correct":true,"explanation":"Reciprocal inhibition proposes that fear is inhibited by an incompatible relaxation response, because a person cannot readily experience intense anxiety and calmness simultaneously."},{"text":"Fear and exposure cannot easily occur together.","correct":false,"explanation":"Exposure must occur alongside relaxation for systematic desensitisation to work, so these are not incompatible. Reciprocal inhibition concerns fear and calmness not easily occurring together."},{"text":"Fear and avoidance cannot easily occur together.","correct":false,"explanation":"Fear commonly produces avoidance, so these responses can occur together and may maintain a phobia. Reciprocal inhibition instead makes use of fear’s incompatibility with calmness."},{"text":"Fear and learning cannot easily occur together.","correct":false,"explanation":"Fear can be learned through conditioning, so learning is not inherently incompatible with it. Reciprocal inhibition states that fear and calmness cannot easily coexist."}]},{"id":"a532f2d9-4e5b-415b-b327-fcce1efca6e5","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"When should the client move up the anxiety hierarchy?","back":"Only when anxiety has reduced at the current stage.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Only when anxiety has reduced at the current stage.","correct":true,"explanation":"Progress is gradual: the client advances only after remaining calm and experiencing reduced anxiety at the present level, preventing exposure from becoming overwhelming."},{"text":"Only when anxiety has increased at the current stage.","correct":false,"explanation":"Moving on while anxiety is increasing risks overwhelming the client and strengthening fear. Progress should occur only after anxiety has reduced at the current stage."},{"text":"Only when avoidance has begun at the current stage.","correct":false,"explanation":"Avoidance prevents sufficient exposure and can maintain the phobia through negative reinforcement. The client should move up only once anxiety has reduced at the current stage."},{"text":"Only when relaxation has stopped at the current stage.","correct":false,"explanation":"Stopping relaxation removes the incompatible response needed for reciprocal inhibition. The client should move upward only after anxiety has reduced at the present stage."}]},{"id":"5cbdcfc8-c5f2-4af1-ac11-4d30e64f8ac3","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why is systematic desensitisation relatively ethical?","back":"It is gradual and collaborative, unlike intense exposure.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It is gradual and collaborative, unlike intense exposure.","correct":true,"explanation":"Systematic desensitisation uses an agreed anxiety hierarchy and progresses at a manageable pace, giving the client control and reducing distress compared with intense exposure techniques such as flooding."},{"text":"It is rapid and therapist-controlled, like intense exposure.","correct":false,"explanation":"Rapid, therapist-controlled exposure describes flooding and may cause considerable distress. Systematic desensitisation is relatively ethical because exposure is gradual, collaborative and based on an agreed anxiety hierarchy."},{"text":"It avoids all feared stimuli, preventing intense exposure.","correct":false,"explanation":"Avoiding exposure would prevent the client from learning that the feared stimulus is safe. The therapy is relatively ethical because exposure occurs gradually and collaboratively rather than intensely."},{"text":"It is drug-based and non-collaborative, avoiding intense exposure.","correct":false,"explanation":"Medication may produce side effects and is not what makes systematic desensitisation ethical. Its ethical advantage comes from gradual, collaborative exposure that minimises distress and preserves client control."}]},{"id":"d577f3cb-fa2f-4823-864a-2b168b82c3cc","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why does systematic desensitisation fit the behaviourist explanation?","back":"It targets the learned association maintaining the phobia.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It targets the learned association maintaining the phobia.","correct":true,"explanation":"Behaviourists explain phobias as learned associations between stimuli and fear responses. Systematic desensitisation uses counterconditioning to replace this association with a relaxation response."},{"text":"It targets the unconscious conflict maintaining the phobia.","correct":false,"explanation":"Unconscious conflict belongs to the psychodynamic explanation rather than behaviourism. Systematic desensitisation fits behaviourism because it changes the learned association maintaining the phobic response."},{"text":"It targets the irrational belief maintaining the phobia.","correct":false,"explanation":"Faulty beliefs are central to cognitive explanations and therapies such as CBT. Systematic desensitisation is behaviourist because it targets a learned stimulus-response association through counterconditioning."},{"text":"It targets the chemical imbalance maintaining the phobia.","correct":false,"explanation":"A neurotransmitter imbalance is a biological explanation, not a behaviourist one. Systematic desensitisation instead aims to replace the learned association between the feared stimulus and anxiety."}]}]}],"examCountdown":{"examDate":"2027-05-10","paperLabel":"Paper 1"},"heading":"Alternatives to the medical model","title":"Alternatives to the medical model Flashcards","topbar":{"backHref":"/as-level/psychology/ocr/flashcards"},"topicSidebar":"$L36"}]}],"topicId":"27995276-e02c-55a6-aafa-aff2901ce692","walled":"$L37"}],"$L38","$L39"]