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bloodstream.","correct":true,"explanation":"Endocrine glands secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream, which transports them to target cells or organs elsewhere in the body."},{"text":"A hormone is a chemical messenger released by an endocrine gland into the synaptic cleft.","correct":false,"explanation":"Confusing hormones with neurotransmitters makes the synaptic cleft tempting. Hormones are released by endocrine glands into the bloodstream, allowing them to reach distant targets."},{"text":"A hormone is a chemical messenger released by a sensory neurone into the bloodstream.","correct":false,"explanation":"Sensory neurones carry electrical impulses rather than secreting hormones. A hormone is released by an endocrine gland into the bloodstream for circulation around the body."},{"text":"A hormone is a chemical messenger released by an exocrine gland into the body cavity.","correct":false,"explanation":"Exocrine glands release substances through ducts, not hormones into internal circulation. Endocrine glands release hormones directly into the bloodstream."}]},{"id":"82c287eb-cc91-463d-ae71-49213f1ea09a","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Compared with neurotransmitters, how do hormones usually differ in timing?","back":"Hormones act more slowly and are longer-lasting.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Hormones act more slowly and are longer-lasting.","correct":true,"explanation":"Hormones travel through the bloodstream, so their effects usually begin more slowly than synaptic transmission but persist for longer."},{"text":"Hormones act more quickly and are shorter-lasting.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the usual distinction and describes neurotransmitter action more closely. Hormones generally act more slowly because they circulate in blood, and their effects are longer-lasting."},{"text":"Hormones act more slowly and are shorter-lasting.","correct":false,"explanation":"The slower onset is correct, but the duration is reversed. Hormonal effects generally last longer than neurotransmitter effects because they remain active in circulation and target tissues."},{"text":"Hormones act more quickly and are longer-lasting.","correct":false,"explanation":"Although hormonal effects are often longer-lasting, they do not usually begin more quickly. Blood-borne signalling is slower than rapid neurotransmission across synapses."}]},{"id":"dfddd882-0723-4f04-aaf0-bad1fafca994","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Aggression involves behaviour intended to cause [ ] to someone motivated to [ ].","back":"Aggression involves behaviour intended to cause harm to someone motivated to avoid that harm.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Aggression involves behaviour intended to cause harm to someone motivated to avoid that harm.","correct":true,"explanation":"Aggression requires an intention to harm and a target who does not want the harm. This distinguishes aggression from accidents and consensual activities."},{"text":"Aggression involves behaviour intended to cause harm to someone motivated to seek that harm.","correct":false,"explanation":"The target must be motivated to avoid the harm. If the apparent harm is actively sought or consensual, the behaviour does not meet the psychological definition of aggression."},{"text":"Aggression involves behaviour intended to cause help to someone motivated to avoid that help.","correct":false,"explanation":"Resistance by the recipient is not sufficient to define aggression. The behaviour must be intended to cause harm to someone motivated to avoid that harm."},{"text":"Aggression involves behaviour intended to cause harm to someone motivated to accept that harm.","correct":false,"explanation":"Accepting harm implies consent, which conflicts with the definition of aggression. The intended target must be motivated to avoid the harm being caused."}]},{"id":"5d54f9a0-3dc6-4047-ae07-6d753e3c6fd4","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which hormone is the main example in the hormonal explanation of aggression?","back":"Testosterone.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Testosterone.","correct":true,"explanation":"Testosterone is the principal hormone examined in hormonal explanations of aggression, with higher levels associated with dominance-related and aggressive responses in some contexts."},{"text":"Cortisol.","correct":false,"explanation":"Cortisol is primarily associated with the stress response rather than being the main hormonal explanation of aggression. The principal example is testosterone."},{"text":"Adrenaline.","correct":false,"explanation":"Adrenaline produces physiological arousal during the fight-or-flight response, but testosterone is the main hormone used to explain individual differences in aggression."},{"text":"Oestrogen.","correct":false,"explanation":"Oestrogen influences reproductive functioning and behaviour, but it is not the main example in the hormonal explanation of aggression. That role is given to testosterone."}]},{"id":"bae487c8-723f-4c96-844d-9bbfe3f3ffdd","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What type of hormone is testosterone?","back":"Testosterone is an androgen.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Testosterone is an androgen.","correct":true,"explanation":"Testosterone belongs to the androgen group of hormones, which contributes to male sexual development and can influence dominance and aggression-related behaviour."},{"text":"Testosterone is a neurotransmitter.","correct":false,"explanation":"Neurotransmitters transmit signals across synapses, whereas testosterone travels hormonally through the bloodstream. Testosterone is an androgen produced mainly by the gonads."},{"text":"Testosterone is a peptide hormone.","correct":false,"explanation":"Peptide hormones are built from amino-acid chains, whereas testosterone is classified as an androgen and has a steroid structure derived from cholesterol."},{"text":"Testosterone is a catecholamine.","correct":false,"explanation":"Catecholamines include adrenaline, noradrenaline and dopamine. Testosterone is instead an androgen involved in sexual development and aggression-related processes."}]},{"id":"0af01efe-9624-4ab6-99e8-2607d70f9ce2","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What is the HPG axis sequence leading to testosterone release?","back":"Hypothalamus - pituitary gland - gonads - testosterone.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Hypothalamus - pituitary gland - gonads - testosterone.","correct":true,"explanation":"The hypothalamus stimulates the pituitary gland, which signals the gonads. The gonads then produce and release testosterone as the final hormonal output."},{"text":"Pituitary gland - hypothalamus - gonads - testosterone.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the first two stages. The hypothalamus initiates the HPG axis by stimulating the pituitary gland, which then signals the gonads to produce testosterone."},{"text":"Hypothalamus - gonads - pituitary gland - testosterone.","correct":false,"explanation":"This incorrectly places the gonads before the pituitary gland. Pituitary hormones must first stimulate the gonads, which then release testosterone."},{"text":"Hypothalamus - pituitary gland - adrenal glands - testosterone.","correct":false,"explanation":"Replacing the gonads with the adrenal glands confuses the HPG axis with stress-related endocrine pathways. The pituitary signals the gonads to produce testosterone."}]},{"id":"84f97158-fb00-4a51-b3a5-10f692ecdcad","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"After testosterone is released, how does it regulate the HPG system?","back":"It feeds back to the brain.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It feeds back to the brain.","correct":true,"explanation":"Testosterone provides negative feedback to the hypothalamus and pituitary in the brain, helping regulate further hormonal signalling and maintain stable circulating levels."},{"text":"It feeds forward to the gonads.","correct":false,"explanation":"The gonads produce testosterone rather than receiving it as a feed-forward signal. Released testosterone feeds back to the brain to regulate further HPG activity."},{"text":"It stops entering the bloodstream.","correct":false,"explanation":"Testosterone must enter the bloodstream to reach target tissues. Regulation occurs through feedback to the hypothalamus and pituitary in the brain, not by blocking circulation."},{"text":"It converts directly into adrenaline.","correct":false,"explanation":"Testosterone and adrenaline are distinct hormones with different synthesis pathways. Testosterone regulates the HPG system by feeding back to the brain."}]},{"id":"37e2b654-b256-4553-948e-c1a2194a4561","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How may higher testosterone affect the amygdala during threat?","back":"It may increase amygdala reactivity to threat or provocation.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It may increase amygdala reactivity to threat or provocation.","correct":true,"explanation":"Higher testosterone may heighten the amygdala’s response to perceived threat or provocation, increasing sensitivity to cues that can trigger aggressive behaviour."},{"text":"It may decrease amygdala reactivity to threat or provocation.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the proposed relationship. Higher testosterone may increase amygdala reactivity, making threat and provocation cues more salient and potentially encouraging aggression."},{"text":"It may increase hippocampal reactivity to threat or provocation.","correct":false,"explanation":"The hippocampus is primarily associated with memory and context. The hormonal explanation focuses on increased amygdala reactivity to threat or provocation."},{"text":"It may prevent amygdala activation during threat or provocation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Higher testosterone is not proposed to prevent amygdala activation. It may heighten amygdala reactivity to threatening or provocative stimuli, potentially facilitating aggression."}]},{"id":"142d4486-0113-4661-907e-5e77f700a8f3","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Higher testosterone may make others' behaviour seem more [ ] or [ ].","back":"Higher testosterone may make others' behaviour seem more hostile or challenging.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Higher testosterone may make others' behaviour seem more hostile or challenging.","correct":true,"explanation":"Testosterone can increase sensitivity to status threats, making ambiguous social behaviour appear hostile or challenging and thereby raising the likelihood of an aggressive response."},{"text":"Higher testosterone may make others' behaviour seem more friendly or cooperative.","correct":false,"explanation":"Greater friendliness and cooperativeness are not the proposed perceptual effects of higher testosterone. It may instead bias people to interpret others' behaviour as hostile or challenging."},{"text":"Higher testosterone may make others' behaviour seem more submissive or reassuring.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the suggested bias by describing others as less threatening. Higher testosterone may make ambiguous behaviour seem hostile or challenging, particularly where status is at stake."},{"text":"Higher testosterone may make others' behaviour seem more neutral or predictable.","correct":false,"explanation":"Higher testosterone is not proposed to make social behaviour seem neutral or predictable. It may heighten threat interpretation, making others appear hostile or challenging."}]},{"id":"2f71ab16-3ed3-4e0b-acb1-61c3a0751ab3","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"The prefrontal cortex is involved in [ ], judgement and [ ].","back":"The prefrontal cortex is involved in planning, judgement and impulse control.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The prefrontal cortex is involved in planning, judgement and impulse control.","correct":true,"explanation":"The prefrontal cortex supports executive functions, including planning, evaluating decisions and controlling impulses. These processes allow behaviour to be considered and inhibited before action occurs."},{"text":"The prefrontal cortex is involved in visual processing, judgement and breathing control.","correct":false,"explanation":"Visual processing is primarily associated with the occipital cortex, while breathing is largely regulated by the brainstem. The prefrontal cortex supports planning, judgement and impulse control."},{"text":"The prefrontal cortex is involved in movement coordination, judgement and balance control.","correct":false,"explanation":"Although movement involves several cortical areas, basic movement coordination is strongly associated with motor regions and the cerebellum. The prefrontal cortex instead supports planning, judgement and impulse control."},{"text":"The prefrontal cortex is involved in planning, judgement and reflex control.","correct":false,"explanation":"Planning is correctly linked to the prefrontal cortex, but reflex control mainly involves automatic neural pathways rather than conscious executive control. The missing function is impulse control."}]},{"id":"2cb0ae9f-ec16-4598-a6d7-e62661a7e51c","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why can weaker prefrontal control increase aggression?","back":"It reduces ability to inhibit aggressive impulses.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It reduces ability to inhibit aggressive impulses.","correct":true,"explanation":"The prefrontal cortex normally regulates behaviour by suppressing inappropriate responses. Weaker control makes it harder to inhibit aggressive impulses before they become actions."},{"text":"It increases ability to inhibit aggressive impulses.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the relationship: stronger inhibition would reduce aggression rather than increase it. Weaker prefrontal control raises aggression because it reduces the ability to inhibit aggressive impulses."},{"text":"It directly causes the body to release more testosterone.","correct":false,"explanation":"The prefrontal cortex regulates behaviour rather than directly producing testosterone. Weaker control increases aggression by reducing the person's ability to inhibit aggressive impulses."},{"text":"It removes ability to recognise aggressive consequences.","correct":false,"explanation":"Weaker prefrontal control does not necessarily remove awareness of consequences. Its key effect is reducing the capacity to inhibit aggressive impulses despite possible awareness of those consequences."}]},{"id":"0f1758a0-bf3f-40a7-b490-1179d7665096","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why is “testosterone causes aggression” too deterministic?","back":"Testosterone only increases aggression probability, depending on context and self-control.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Testosterone only increases aggression probability, depending on context and self-control.","correct":true,"explanation":"Testosterone is a probabilistic influence rather than an inevitable cause. Whether aggression occurs also depends on social context, perceived provocation and the person's capacity for self-control."},{"text":"Testosterone always produces aggressive behaviour, regardless of context and self-control.","correct":false,"explanation":"Claiming that testosterone determines aggression regardless of other factors is precisely the deterministic error. It only increases aggression probability, with context and self-control shaping the outcome."},{"text":"Testosterone only decreases aggression probability, depending on context and self-control.","correct":false,"explanation":"The direction of the proposed association has been reversed here. Testosterone can increase aggression probability, but its effects depend on contextual influences and the individual's self-control."},{"text":"Testosterone directly causes aggressive behaviour, depending only on hormone level.","correct":false,"explanation":"This still treats testosterone as producing a fixed outcome and ignores individual regulation. Testosterone increases aggression probability rather than guaranteeing aggression, depending on context and self-control."}]},{"id":"7f5a93ed-1aea-4983-b40a-a27e47b9c9ed","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"[ ] is a person's usual level; [ ] is a change after a situation.","back":"Baseline testosterone is a person's usual level; reactive testosterone is a change after a situation.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Baseline testosterone is a person's usual level; reactive testosterone is a change after a situation.","correct":true,"explanation":"Baseline testosterone is the individual's typical level measured without an immediate challenge. Reactive testosterone describes the hormonal change that follows a particular social situation or event."},{"text":"Reactive testosterone is a person's usual level; baseline testosterone is a change after a situation.","correct":false,"explanation":"The two concepts have been reversed. Baseline testosterone is a person's usual level, whereas reactive testosterone is the change occurring after a situation or challenge."},{"text":"Peak testosterone is a person's usual level; reactive testosterone is a change after a situation.","correct":false,"explanation":"A peak is the highest recorded level, not the person's usual level. Baseline testosterone describes the usual level, while reactive testosterone describes a situational change."},{"text":"Baseline testosterone is a person's usual level; baseline testosterone is a change after a situation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Baseline correctly identifies the usual level, but it cannot also name the situational change. That change is called reactive testosterone because it occurs in response to an event."}]},{"id":"397bba35-26e3-421b-87b2-d923e605c78c","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"According to the challenge hypothesis, when does testosterone rise?","back":"After social challenges, such as competition or status threats.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"After social challenges, such as competition or status threats.","correct":true,"explanation":"The challenge hypothesis predicts a reactive rise in testosterone when status is contested. Competition and status threats are social challenges that may prepare someone for dominance-related behaviour."},{"text":"After periods of rest, such as relaxation or sleep.","correct":false,"explanation":"The challenge hypothesis concerns socially significant competition rather than ordinary rest. Testosterone is predicted to rise after social challenges, such as competition or threats to status."},{"text":"After routine interactions, such as greetings or casual conversation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Routine social contact does not necessarily threaten dominance or status. The challenge hypothesis predicts increased testosterone after social challenges, especially competition or status threats."},{"text":"After social withdrawal, such as avoiding competition or status threats.","correct":false,"explanation":"Avoiding competition removes the type of status challenge central to the hypothesis. Testosterone is expected to rise following social challenges such as competition or status threats."}]},{"id":"f8c1ce35-c2ae-4f65-abaa-869055409fa6","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"In Mazur's biosocial model, testosterone is linked mainly to what?","back":"Dominance and status-seeking.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Dominance and status-seeking.","correct":true,"explanation":"Mazur's biosocial model links testosterone to efforts to gain or maintain social rank. Aggression may be used instrumentally when it serves dominance and status-seeking."},{"text":"Fear and threat avoidance.","correct":false,"explanation":"Threat avoidance describes withdrawal rather than attempts to gain or defend rank. Mazur's model primarily links testosterone with dominance and status-seeking behaviour."},{"text":"Cooperation and social bonding.","correct":false,"explanation":"Cooperation and social bonding are not the model's main testosterone-related motives. Mazur instead emphasises dominance and status-seeking within social hierarchies."},{"text":"Memory and problem-solving.","correct":false,"explanation":"These are cognitive abilities rather than the social motives highlighted by the biosocial model. Mazur mainly associates testosterone with dominance and status-seeking."}]},{"id":"7c9d31d9-c195-451d-a077-72873c4a95e2","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What did Dabbs et al. (1995) find in male prison inmates?","back":"Higher testosterone was linked to violent crimes and prison rule-breaking.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Higher testosterone was linked to violent crimes and prison rule-breaking.","correct":true,"explanation":"Dabbs and colleagues found that inmates with higher testosterone were more likely to have committed violent offences and to break prison rules, supporting an association with aggressive conduct."},{"text":"Higher testosterone was linked to non-violent crimes and good prison behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses both reported associations. Higher testosterone was linked to violent crimes and prison rule-breaking, rather than non-violent offending and compliant behaviour."},{"text":"Higher testosterone was linked to violent crimes and good prison behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"Violent offending matches the study, but good prison behaviour does not. Inmates with higher testosterone were also more likely to engage in prison rule-breaking."},{"text":"Higher testosterone was linked to property crimes and prison rule-breaking.","correct":false,"explanation":"Rule-breaking matches the finding, but higher testosterone was particularly associated with violent rather than property crimes. The reported pattern combined violent offending with prison misconduct."}]},{"id":"8bc9300e-c2bd-42b3-afb7-8ecdb5545014","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Why can't Dabbs et al. prove testosterone caused aggression?","back":"The study was correlational.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The study was correlational.","correct":true,"explanation":"Correlational evidence identifies an association between naturally occurring testosterone and aggression, but cannot establish that testosterone caused aggression because other variables may explain the relationship."},{"text":"The study was experimental.","correct":false,"explanation":"An experimental study would manipulate testosterone and control extraneous variables, allowing stronger causal conclusions. Dabbs et al. measured an association, so the study was correlational."},{"text":"The study was longitudinal.","correct":false,"explanation":"Longitudinal research follows participants over time, but that was not the key design limitation here. Dabbs et al. used correlational evidence, which cannot demonstrate causation."},{"text":"The study was a case study.","correct":false,"explanation":"A case study provides detailed evidence about an individual or small group. Dabbs et al. examined covariation between testosterone and aggression, making the study correlational."}]},{"id":"b6fb7bec-2510-42cb-a699-5e357969f805","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What did Book, Starzyk and Quinsey's (2001) meta-analysis find?","back":"A small positive relationship, around $r \\approx .14$.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A small positive relationship, around $r \\approx .14$.","correct":true,"explanation":"The meta-analysis found a positive but weak correlation of approximately $r = .14$, indicating that higher testosterone was associated with only slightly greater aggression."},{"text":"A large positive relationship, around $r \\approx .54$.","correct":false,"explanation":"A coefficient near $.54$ would indicate a much stronger association than the researchers reported. The meta-analysis found only a small positive relationship of about $r = .14$."},{"text":"A small negative relationship, around $r \\approx -.14$.","correct":false,"explanation":"Reversing the sign wrongly suggests that testosterone increased as aggression decreased. Book et al. found a small positive relationship, with a correlation of approximately $r = .14$."},{"text":"A negligible relationship, around $r \\approx .00$.","correct":false,"explanation":"Treating the weak effect as zero overlooks the statistically positive association identified across studies. The reported relationship was small and positive, at approximately $r = .14$."}]},{"id":"f1c34952-ae4f-44c2-ad4d-394b9a55675c","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What does Book et al.'s small effect size suggest?","back":"Testosterone is only one factor in aggression.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Testosterone is only one factor in aggression.","correct":true,"explanation":"The weak association means testosterone explains only a small proportion of variation in aggression. Social, cognitive, situational and other biological influences must also contribute."},{"text":"Testosterone is the primary cause of aggression.","correct":false,"explanation":"A small effect cannot support the claim that testosterone is the main cause of aggression. It indicates that testosterone is only one factor among several influences."},{"text":"Testosterone has no role in aggression.","correct":false,"explanation":"A positive correlation of approximately $r = .14$ suggests some association, so testosterone cannot be dismissed entirely. Instead, it is only one factor influencing aggression."},{"text":"Testosterone is the sole biological factor in aggression.","correct":false,"explanation":"The small correlation leaves most variation in aggression unexplained, contradicting a single-factor account. Testosterone is only one factor, alongside environmental and psychological influences."}]},{"id":"9b4ab396-d639-4041-ada2-d28982076d7b","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What did Klinesmith et al. (2006) show about guns and testosterone?","back":"Interacting with a gun increased testosterone and later aggression.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Interacting with a gun increased testosterone and later aggression.","correct":true,"explanation":"Participants who handled a gun showed increased testosterone and subsequently allocated more hot sauce, supporting the view that environmental cues can affect hormones and aggressive behaviour."},{"text":"Interacting with a gun decreased testosterone and later aggression.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the observed hormonal effect. Handling the gun increased testosterone rather than reducing it, and participants later displayed greater aggression through hot sauce allocation."},{"text":"Interacting with a gun increased cortisol and later aggression.","correct":false,"explanation":"The study focused on changes in testosterone, not cortisol, after exposure to a weapon. Interacting with a gun increased testosterone and was followed by greater aggression."},{"text":"Interacting with a gun increased testosterone and reduced later aggression.","correct":false,"explanation":"Although testosterone increased after participants handled the weapon, aggression did not decline. They later allocated more hot sauce, indicating that interacting with a gun increased later aggression."}]},{"id":"89bd70eb-01e2-4498-81fa-6a336430d127","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What limits Klinesmith et al.'s hot sauce measure of aggression?","back":"It is artificial, so may lack ecological validity.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It is artificial, so may lack ecological validity.","correct":true,"explanation":"Allocating hot sauce is a laboratory proxy rather than ordinary aggressive behaviour. This artificial operationalisation may not predict how participants act aggressively in real-life settings."},{"text":"It is subjective, so may lack inter-rater reliability.","correct":false,"explanation":"The amount of hot sauce could be measured consistently, so subjectivity is not the main limitation. The measure is artificial and may lack ecological validity."},{"text":"It is correlational, so cannot establish causation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Correlational methods concern relationships between measured variables, whereas Klinesmith et al. manipulated the object participants handled. The main problem is that hot sauce allocation is artificial."},{"text":"It is unethical, so cannot be used with participants.","correct":false,"explanation":"Hot sauce allocation may raise minor ethical concerns, but it is not inherently impossible to use ethically. Its principal limitation is being artificial, reducing ecological validity."}]},{"id":"6b0670f5-eb55-4fa4-907b-10e97272508a","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What did Carré et al. (2017) show about testosterone's effects?","back":"They depend on personality and context.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They depend on personality and context.","correct":true,"explanation":"Testosterone does not produce an identical response in everyone. Its influence on aggression is moderated by individual personality characteristics and features of the social situation."},{"text":"They are universal and automatic.","correct":false,"explanation":"Carré et al. challenged a simple deterministic account in which testosterone affects everyone identically. Its effects vary according to personality and context."},{"text":"They depend on biological sex alone.","correct":false,"explanation":"Reducing the effect to biological sex ignores important psychological and situational moderators. Carré et al. showed that testosterone’s effects depend on personality and context."},{"text":"They depend on height and body weight.","correct":false,"explanation":"Physical size was not identified as the key explanation for differing responses to testosterone. The evidence instead indicates moderation by personality and context."}]},{"id":"8968b741-64e2-4fa5-ba9e-4cccec5da4ca","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"The dual-hormone hypothesis predicts aggression is especially likely when testosterone is [ ] and cortisol is [ ].","back":"The dual-hormone hypothesis predicts aggression is especially likely when testosterone is high and cortisol is low.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The dual-hormone hypothesis predicts aggression is especially likely when testosterone is high and cortisol is low.","correct":true,"explanation":"The hypothesis proposes that high cortisol can inhibit testosterone-related dominance and aggression. Aggression is therefore most likely when testosterone is high but cortisol is low."},{"text":"The dual-hormone hypothesis predicts aggression is especially likely when testosterone is low and cortisol is low.","correct":false,"explanation":"Low testosterone does not provide the proposed hormonal drive towards dominance and aggression. The predicted combination is high testosterone together with low cortisol."},{"text":"The dual-hormone hypothesis predicts aggression is especially likely when testosterone is high and cortisol is high.","correct":false,"explanation":"High cortisol is thought to suppress or regulate the behavioural effects of testosterone. The strongest prediction is therefore aggression under high testosterone and low cortisol."},{"text":"The dual-hormone hypothesis predicts aggression is especially likely when testosterone is low and cortisol is high.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses both parts of the predicted hormonal profile. The dual-hormone hypothesis associates aggression particularly with high testosterone combined with low cortisol."}]},{"id":"e2a07e54-4221-4280-a0c8-6a32f4297f12","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Why can hormone measurement using saliva or blood be a strength?","back":"It is more objective than self-reporting aggression.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It is more objective than self-reporting aggression.","correct":true,"explanation":"Saliva and blood assays produce quantifiable biological measurements that do not depend on participants accurately recalling or honestly reporting their own aggressive behaviour."},{"text":"It is more subjective than self-reporting aggression.","correct":false,"explanation":"Laboratory assays reduce rather than increase reliance on personal judgement. Hormone measurement is more objective than self-reported aggression because it yields quantifiable biological data."},{"text":"It is more open to social desirability bias than self-reporting aggression.","correct":false,"explanation":"Social desirability mainly affects answers participants consciously provide about themselves. Saliva or blood measurement is more objective because hormone levels cannot be deliberately misreported."},{"text":"It is a more direct measure of aggression than observation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Hormone concentration is not itself aggressive behaviour, so it is not a direct measure of aggression. Its methodological strength is greater objectivity than self-report data."}]},{"id":"98a9ff52-679c-4276-81f0-6dd413174b4d","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why is the testosterone-aggression topic socially sensitive?","back":"It may reinforce stereotypes that males or high-testosterone people are naturally violent.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It may reinforce stereotypes that males or high-testosterone people are naturally violent.","correct":true,"explanation":"Biologically deterministic conclusions could stigmatise males or people with high testosterone by implying that they are inherently violent, potentially affecting how society judges or treats them."},{"text":"It may require researchers to give every participant a dangerous dose of testosterone.","correct":false,"explanation":"Testosterone research does not necessarily involve administering dangerous hormone doses; many studies measure naturally occurring levels. The social sensitivity comes from potentially reinforcing stereotypes that males or high-testosterone people are naturally violent."},{"text":"It may require researchers to encourage participants to commit genuine acts of violence.","correct":false,"explanation":"Aggression can be studied using ethical laboratory measures without encouraging real violence. The key social concern is that biological explanations may stereotype males or high-testosterone people as naturally violent."},{"text":"It may reveal participants’ hormone levels to their employers, teachers and family members.","correct":false,"explanation":"Revealing confidential data would be a privacy breach, not the main social sensitivity of the topic. The concern is that testosterone research may reinforce stereotypes linking males or high-testosterone people with natural violence."}]}]}],"examCountdown":{"examDate":"2027-05-10","paperLabel":"Paper 1"},"heading":"Role of hormones in aggression","title":"Role of hormones in aggression Flashcards","topbar":{"backHref":"/as-level/psychology/edexcel/flashcards"},"topicSidebar":"$L38"}]}],"topicId":"1ecbe4a0-6787-5654-bb75-ea02ff99e59c","walled":"$L39"}],"$L3a","$L3b"]