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decision about taking part."},{"text":"Right to withdraw.","correct":false,"explanation":"The right to withdraw concerns leaving a study or removing data, not agreeing with insufficient information. The weakened guideline is informed consent."},{"text":"Protection from harm.","correct":false,"explanation":"Protection from harm requires risks to be no greater than those encountered in everyday life. Insufficient information before agreeing weakens informed consent."},{"text":"Confidentiality.","correct":false,"explanation":"Confidentiality concerns protecting participants' identities and personal data. Agreement based on inadequate information instead breaches the principle of informed consent."}]},{"id":"4b29ddc7-d663-43c6-b1fd-c4dade273bfd","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which ethical issue is raised when participants are deliberately misled?","back":"Deception.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Deception.","correct":true,"explanation":"Deception occurs when researchers deliberately withhold relevant information or give participants false information about a study's aims, procedures or purpose."},{"text":"Confidentiality.","correct":false,"explanation":"Confidentiality concerns keeping identities and personal information private. Deliberately giving participants false or incomplete information raises the ethical issue of deception."},{"text":"Protection from harm.","correct":false,"explanation":"Misleading participants might sometimes cause distress, but the specific ethical issue created by deliberately misleading them is deception, rather than protection from harm."},{"text":"Right to withdraw.","correct":false,"explanation":"The right to withdraw concerns participants' freedom to leave the research. Deliberately misleading them about the study specifically raises the issue of deception."}]},{"id":"ba3f0bfc-0918-42c7-b3d8-cdacaeca0d20","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Researchers should avoid physical or psychological [ ] and protect participants' [ ].","back":"Researchers should avoid physical or psychological harm and protect participants' confidentiality.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Researchers should avoid physical or psychological harm and protect participants' confidentiality.","correct":true,"explanation":"Ethical research must protect participants from physical and psychological harm while ensuring that identifying information and personal data remain confidential."},{"text":"Researchers should avoid physical or psychological fatigue and protect participants' confidentiality.","correct":false,"explanation":"Fatigue can be one possible source of harm, but the ethical guideline covers all physical and psychological harm. Researchers must also protect confidentiality."},{"text":"Researchers should avoid physical or psychological harm and protect participants' validity.","correct":false,"explanation":"Validity describes whether a study or measure assesses what it claims, not something belonging to participants. Researchers must protect participants' confidentiality."},{"text":"Researchers should avoid physical or psychological distress and protect participants' reliability.","correct":false,"explanation":"Distress is only one form of possible harm, while reliability concerns consistency rather than participant privacy. Researchers should avoid harm and protect confidentiality."}]},{"id":"2bfed0cf-aafe-4627-aff5-802f9e87d704","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why did Sherif's Robbers Cave study raise ethical concerns?","back":"Boys were put into conflict without full awareness of the aims.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Boys were put into conflict without full awareness of the aims.","correct":true,"explanation":"Sherif deliberately created hostility between the groups, exposing the boys to psychological harm while they lacked full awareness of the study's true aims."},{"text":"Boys were given electric shocks without full awareness of the aims.","correct":false,"explanation":"Electric shocks were associated with Milgram's obedience research, not Robbers Cave. Sherif's concern was that boys were put into conflict without understanding the aims."},{"text":"Boys were forced to remain isolated without full awareness of the aims.","correct":false,"explanation":"The boys were divided into competing groups rather than kept in complete isolation. The ethical concern was deliberately putting them into conflict without full awareness."},{"text":"Boys were given memory tests without full awareness of the aims.","correct":false,"explanation":"Robbers Cave investigated intergroup conflict, not memory performance. Its ethical concern was that the boys were deliberately put into conflict without knowing the full aims."}]},{"id":"cd1d4da0-4d9c-4b39-b5ec-ea00e96a010f","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"At what shock level did Burger (2009) stop his Milgram-style procedure?","back":"150 volts.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"150 volts.","correct":true,"explanation":"Burger ended the procedure at 150 volts because Milgram's findings showed that participants passing this point were highly likely to continue to 450 volts."},{"text":"450 volts.","correct":false,"explanation":"450 volts was the maximum on Milgram's original shock generator. Burger stopped at 150 volts to reduce distress while still predicting likely obedience."},{"text":"300 volts.","correct":false,"explanation":"300 volts was a later point in Milgram's original procedure, after the learner had protested strongly. Burger's ethical replication stopped much earlier, at 150 volts."},{"text":"75 volts.","correct":false,"explanation":"75 volts was below the critical point used to predict continued obedience. Burger allowed the procedure to reach 150 volts before stopping it."}]},{"id":"04c68e18-bfec-4296-9512-482aa67d053b","cardType":"basic","points":3,"front":"What are the animal-research 3Rs?","back":"

Replacement - use alternatives where possible.
Reduction - use fewer animals.
Refinement - reduce suffering.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Replacement - use alternatives where possible.
Reduction - use fewer animals.
Refinement - reduce suffering.

","correct":true,"explanation":"The 3Rs require researchers to replace animals with alternatives, reduce the number used and refine procedures to minimise pain, distress and suffering."},{"text":"

Replication - repeat studies where possible.
Randomisation - assign animals randomly.
Reporting - publish all results.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Replication, randomisation and reporting are research practices, not the animal-research 3Rs. The correct principles are Replacement, Reduction and Refinement."},{"text":"

Replacement - replace animals after each trial.
Reduction - shorten every procedure.
Refinement - improve the hypothesis.

","correct":false,"explanation":"The names are correct but their meanings are not. They require alternatives to animals, fewer animals and procedures refined to reduce suffering."},{"text":"

Restriction - limit animals' movement.
Regulation - follow legal requirements.
Rehabilitation - release animals afterwards.

","correct":false,"explanation":"These are not the recognised animal-research 3Rs. The framework consists of Replacement with alternatives, Reduction in numbers and Refinement to minimise suffering."}]},{"id":"6fb347b8-c377-4a55-bf8a-2e1273a97ae3","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"A [ ] measure tests what it claims to test; a [ ] measure gives consistent results.","back":"A valid measure tests what it claims to test; a reliable measure gives consistent results.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A valid measure tests what it claims to test; a reliable measure gives consistent results.","correct":true,"explanation":"Validity concerns whether a measure assesses its intended construct, whereas reliability concerns whether it produces consistent results across occasions, observers or items."},{"text":"A reliable measure tests what it claims to test; a valid measure gives consistent results.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the two concepts. A valid measure assesses what it claims to assess, while a reliable measure produces consistent results."},{"text":"A objective measure tests what it claims to test; a reliable measure gives consistent results.","correct":false,"explanation":"Objectivity means results are not influenced by personal judgement, whereas testing the intended construct concerns validity. Consistency correctly describes reliability."},{"text":"A valid measure tests what it claims to test; a replicable measure gives consistent results.","correct":false,"explanation":"Replicability describes whether a study can be repeated successfully, not the consistency of a measurement tool. Consistent measurement is called reliability."}]},{"id":"de246ede-e8c6-4571-a761-03c186450ecc","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What was the main validity cost of Baddeley's controlled word-list tasks?","back":"They reduced ecological validity.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They reduced ecological validity.","correct":true,"explanation":"Artificial word lists and tightly controlled laboratory tasks differ from everyday memory demands, so Baddeley's findings may not generalise well to real-life settings."},{"text":"They reduced internal validity.","correct":false,"explanation":"Strong control generally supports internal validity by limiting confounding variables. The main cost was reduced ecological validity because the tasks were unlike everyday memory."},{"text":"They reduced population validity.","correct":false,"explanation":"Population validity concerns whether findings generalise across different groups of people. Baddeley's artificial word-list tasks mainly reduced ecological validity by lacking everyday realism."},{"text":"They reduced criterion validity.","correct":false,"explanation":"Criterion validity concerns agreement with an established external measure. The controlled and artificial word-list tasks instead reduced ecological validity."}]},{"id":"5ae8ea40-df2e-43db-a534-0d86456d60fc","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"For a difference using unrelated groups, use [ ]; for related data, use [ ].","back":"For a difference using unrelated groups, use Mann-Whitney U; for related data, use Wilcoxon signed-ranks.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"For a difference using unrelated groups, use Mann-Whitney U; for related data, use Wilcoxon signed-ranks.","correct":true,"explanation":"Mann-Whitney U compares two independent groups, whereas Wilcoxon signed-ranks analyses paired or repeated-measures data where the scores are related."},{"text":"For a difference using unrelated groups, use Wilcoxon signed-ranks; for related data, use Mann-Whitney U.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the two difference tests. Mann-Whitney U is used for unrelated groups, while Wilcoxon signed-ranks is used for matched pairs or repeated measures."},{"text":"For a difference using unrelated groups, use chi-square; for related data, use Wilcoxon signed-ranks.","correct":false,"explanation":"Chi-square tests an association between categorical variables rather than a difference between unrelated groups. Mann-Whitney U is required for unrelated groups, with Wilcoxon for related data."},{"text":"For a difference using unrelated groups, use Mann-Whitney U; for related data, use Spearman's rho.","correct":false,"explanation":"Spearman's rho measures correlation rather than differences in related scores. Mann-Whitney U tests unrelated groups, and Wilcoxon signed-ranks tests related data."}]},{"id":"206ad770-83f1-4a53-a49a-852647515d84","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"For a correlation between two variables, use [ ]; for association between categories, use [ ].","back":"For a correlation between two variables, use Spearman's rho; for association between categories, use chi-square.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"For a correlation between two variables, use Spearman's rho; for association between categories, use chi-square.","correct":true,"explanation":"Spearman's rho tests the strength and direction of a correlation between co-variables, whereas chi-square tests whether two categorical variables are associated."},{"text":"For a correlation between two variables, use chi-square; for association between categories, use Spearman's rho.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the purposes of the tests. Spearman's rho tests correlations between co-variables, while chi-square tests associations using categorical frequency data."},{"text":"For a correlation between two variables, use Mann-Whitney U; for association between categories, use chi-square.","correct":false,"explanation":"Mann-Whitney U tests a difference between two unrelated groups, not a correlation. Spearman's rho tests correlations, while chi-square tests categorical associations."},{"text":"For a correlation between two variables, use Spearman's rho; for association between categories, use Wilcoxon signed-ranks.","correct":false,"explanation":"Wilcoxon signed-ranks tests a difference between related sets of scores, not a categorical association. Chi-square is the appropriate association test, alongside Spearman's rho for correlation."}]},{"id":"73936dd3-1c60-4cb9-b602-a989568879ef","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"A [ ] hypothesis predicts a direction; a [ ] hypothesis predicts no direction.","back":"A one-tailed hypothesis predicts a direction; a two-tailed hypothesis predicts no direction.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A one-tailed hypothesis predicts a direction; a two-tailed hypothesis predicts no direction.","correct":true,"explanation":"A one-tailed hypothesis states the expected direction of a difference or relationship. A two-tailed hypothesis predicts an effect but does not specify its direction."},{"text":"A two-tailed hypothesis predicts a direction; a one-tailed hypothesis predicts no direction.","correct":false,"explanation":"The definitions have been reversed. A one-tailed hypothesis specifies the predicted direction, whereas a two-tailed hypothesis predicts an effect without stating its direction."},{"text":"A null hypothesis predicts a direction; a one-tailed hypothesis predicts no direction.","correct":false,"explanation":"A null hypothesis predicts no significant effect or relationship, rather than a direction. Directional predictions are one-tailed, while non-directional alternative hypotheses are two-tailed."},{"text":"A one-tailed hypothesis predicts a direction; a null hypothesis predicts no direction.","correct":false,"explanation":"Although a null hypothesis has no direction, it predicts no effect at all. A two-tailed hypothesis predicts an effect without specifying which direction it will take."}]},{"id":"52feb334-3cfc-4a8d-81bc-2b4d33b267cf","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Contrast the usual critical-value rule for Wilcoxon/Mann-Whitney with Spearman/chi-square.","back":"

Wilcoxon/Mann-Whitney: observed value ≤ critical value.
Spearman/chi-square: observed value ≥ critical value.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Wilcoxon/Mann-Whitney: observed value ≤ critical value.
Spearman/chi-square: observed value ≥ critical value.

","correct":true,"explanation":"Wilcoxon and Mann-Whitney are significant when the observed value is at or below the critical value. Spearman and chi-square require it to be at or above."},{"text":"

Wilcoxon/Mann-Whitney: observed value ≥ critical value.
Spearman/chi-square: observed value ≤ critical value.

","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses both decision rules. Wilcoxon and Mann-Whitney require an observed value at or below the critical value; Spearman and chi-square require at or above."},{"text":"

Wilcoxon/Mann-Whitney: observed value ≤ critical value.
Spearman/chi-square: observed value ≤ critical value.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Applying the lower-value rule to every test is a common mistake. Spearman and chi-square are significant when the observed value is at or above the critical value."},{"text":"

Wilcoxon/Mann-Whitney: observed value ≥ critical value.
Spearman/chi-square: observed value ≥ critical value.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Applying the higher-value rule to every test is incorrect. Wilcoxon and Mann-Whitney are significant when the observed value is at or below the critical value."}]},{"id":"6aa7430b-ec31-4b2b-a1a3-9e229963cbd2","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"If a significant result is actually a false positive, what error has occurred?","back":"Type I error.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Type I error.","correct":true,"explanation":"A Type I error occurs when the null hypothesis is rejected despite being true, producing a significant result that is actually a false positive."},{"text":"Type II error.","correct":false,"explanation":"A Type II error is a false negative, where a genuine effect is missed. A significant result that is actually false is a Type I error."},{"text":"Sampling error.","correct":false,"explanation":"Sampling error describes differences arising because a sample does not perfectly represent its population. The specific term for a false positive is a Type I error."},{"text":"Observer error.","correct":false,"explanation":"Observer error involves inaccurate or biased recording by a researcher. A false significant result caused by wrongly rejecting a true null hypothesis is a Type I error."}]},{"id":"6ba0a813-7ee0-4d95-89cc-366e64d493a1","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why are reductionist explanations often seen as scientific?","back":"They break behaviour into testable simpler parts.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They break behaviour into testable simpler parts.","correct":true,"explanation":"Breaking complex behaviour into simpler components makes variables easier to operationalise, measure and test under controlled conditions, supporting objective and replicable scientific investigation."},{"text":"They break behaviour into untestable simpler parts.","correct":false,"explanation":"Untestable components would weaken rather than strengthen scientific status. Reductionism is viewed as scientific because its simpler components can be operationalised and tested empirically."},{"text":"They combine behaviour into subjective wider contexts.","correct":false,"explanation":"Combining behaviour with its wider context describes a more holistic approach and may be harder to test. Reductionism gains scientific credibility by isolating testable simpler components."},{"text":"They treat behaviour as indivisible complete systems.","correct":false,"explanation":"Treating behaviour as an indivisible system is characteristic of holism, not reductionism. Reductionist explanations are considered scientific because they divide behaviour into testable parts."}]},{"id":"d9c3f8d0-9239-4a32-b95c-92f182d382a3","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What is the main weakness of reductionist explanations?","back":"They can oversimplify behaviour shaped by many levels.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They can oversimplify behaviour shaped by many levels.","correct":true,"explanation":"Reducing behaviour to one component or explanatory level can neglect interactions among biological, cognitive and social influences, producing an incomplete account of complex behaviour."},{"text":"They can overcomplicate behaviour by combining every possible level.","correct":false,"explanation":"Combining many explanatory levels is a potential problem for holistic accounts, not reductionism. Reductionism is criticised for oversimplifying behaviour by neglecting interacting influences."},{"text":"They can prevent testing by treating behaviour as an indivisible whole.","correct":false,"explanation":"Treating behaviour as an indivisible whole describes holism and can make scientific testing difficult. Reductionism's main weakness is instead that it may oversimplify complex behaviour."},{"text":"They can reduce control by including the entire social context.","correct":false,"explanation":"Including the entire social context is associated with holistic explanations and may reduce experimental control. Reductionism is mainly criticised for oversimplifying behaviour across multiple levels."}]},{"id":"ae491a8c-28c7-489d-9c7b-27501c3343f1","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Holism explains behaviour by considering the [ ] and the [ ].","back":"Holism explains behaviour by considering the whole person and the wider context.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Holism explains behaviour by considering the whole person and the wider context.","correct":true,"explanation":"Holism treats behaviour as an integrated whole, considering the complete individual alongside social, cultural and environmental contexts rather than isolating a single explanatory level."},{"text":"Holism explains behaviour by considering the simplest component and the lowest level.","correct":false,"explanation":"Focusing on simple components and the lowest explanatory level describes reductionism. Holism instead examines the whole person and the wider context surrounding behaviour."},{"text":"Holism explains behaviour by considering the whole person and the isolated variable.","correct":false,"explanation":"Isolating one variable conflicts with the holistic emphasis on interacting influences. Holism considers both the whole person and the wider context in which behaviour occurs."},{"text":"Holism explains behaviour by considering the biological component and the simplest mechanism.","correct":false,"explanation":"Explaining behaviour through biological components and simple mechanisms is reductionist. Holism considers the whole person and broader contextual influences together."}]},{"id":"01387117-9640-4e85-bcba-5ec7b7cea5c7","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How does Bartlett (1932) support a holistic view of memory?","back":"Memory is reconstructive and shaped by schemas.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Memory is reconstructive and shaped by schemas.","correct":true,"explanation":"Bartlett found that people altered an unfamiliar story to fit their existing cultural expectations. This demonstrates that schemas actively shape the reconstruction of memories."},{"text":"Memory is reproductive and stored as an exact copy.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reflects the mistaken view that memory reproduces experiences like a recording. Bartlett showed that memory is reconstructive and shaped by schemas rather than stored exactly."},{"text":"Memory is procedural and shaped by reinforcement.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses Bartlett’s schema theory with behavioural learning and procedural memory. His findings support the view that memory is reconstructive and shaped by schemas."},{"text":"Memory is localised and controlled by reflexes.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses a holistic account of memory with biological localisation and automatic responses. Bartlett argued that memory is reconstructive and influenced by organised schemas."}]},{"id":"e052078c-81de-46d5-aaa2-0b60a32d8506","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why can a non-laboratory study still be scientific?","back":"It can be systematic, evidence-based and replicable.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It can be systematic, evidence-based and replicable.","correct":true,"explanation":"Scientific status depends on using systematic, empirical and replicable procedures, not on being conducted in a laboratory. Field and natural studies can therefore still be scientific."},{"text":"It can be subjective, opinion-based and unrepeatable.","correct":false,"explanation":"Subjective, opinion-based and unrepeatable work lacks key features of scientific investigation. A non-laboratory study can be scientific when it is systematic, evidence-based and replicable."},{"text":"It can be controlled, artificial and completely deterministic.","correct":false,"explanation":"This mistakenly equates science with artificial laboratory control and determinism. Non-laboratory research can still be scientific if its methods are systematic, evidence-based and replicable."},{"text":"It can be theoretical, intuition-based and unfalsifiable.","correct":false,"explanation":"Reliance on intuition and unfalsifiable claims would undermine scientific status. A non-laboratory study remains scientific when it gathers evidence systematically and permits replication."}]},{"id":"b78b1f12-0df8-41a0-b90d-00a747b4425b","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Culture bias treats findings from one culture as [ ]; androcentrism treats [ ] as the norm.","back":"Culture bias treats findings from one culture as universal; androcentrism treats male behaviour as the norm.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Culture bias treats findings from one culture as universal; androcentrism treats male behaviour as the norm.","correct":true,"explanation":"Culture bias wrongly generalises findings beyond the culture studied, while androcentrism uses male behaviour as the standard against which all human behaviour is judged."},{"text":"Culture bias treats findings from one culture as culture-specific; androcentrism treats male behaviour as the norm.","correct":false,"explanation":"Recognising findings as culture-specific avoids rather than creates culture bias. Culture bias assumes findings are universal, while androcentrism treats male behaviour as the norm."},{"text":"Culture bias treats findings from one culture as universal; androcentrism treats female behaviour as the norm.","correct":false,"explanation":"The first completion is accurate, but the second reverses androcentrism. Androcentric research treats male behaviour, not female behaviour, as the normal or standard pattern."},{"text":"Culture bias treats findings from one culture as individual; androcentrism treats gender-neutral behaviour as the norm.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses cultural bias with individual differences and androcentrism with gender neutrality. The biased assumptions are that findings are universal and male behaviour is normative."}]},{"id":"6d48ba7a-efdc-42c5-92af-5bcfbc74bbd2","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Contrast alpha bias and beta bias in gender research.","back":"

Alpha bias exaggerates gender differences.
Beta bias minimises or ignores gender differences.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Alpha bias exaggerates gender differences.
Beta bias minimises or ignores gender differences.

","correct":true,"explanation":"Alpha bias emphasises or overstates differences between men and women, whereas beta bias downplays differences by assuming findings apply similarly to both genders."},{"text":"

Alpha bias minimises or ignores gender differences.
Beta bias exaggerates gender differences.

","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the two forms of bias. Alpha bias exaggerates gender differences, whereas beta bias minimises or ignores differences by treating genders as essentially alike."},{"text":"

Alpha bias exaggerates cultural differences.
Beta bias minimises or ignores cultural differences.

","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses gender bias with culture bias. In gender research, alpha bias exaggerates differences between genders, while beta bias minimises or overlooks those differences."},{"text":"

Alpha bias explains gender differences biologically.
Beta bias explains gender differences environmentally.

","correct":false,"explanation":"This incorrectly treats alpha and beta as nature-nurture explanations. They concern the extent of difference: alpha exaggerates gender differences, while beta minimises or ignores them."}]},{"id":"9651d11e-918b-4d0d-881b-fc2c04186630","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What does an interactionist view conclude about nature and nurture?","back":"Nature and nurture work together.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Nature and nurture work together.","correct":true,"explanation":"Interactionism rejects a simple either-or explanation. It proposes that inherited characteristics and environmental experiences influence one another in producing behaviour and psychological development."},{"text":"Nature alone determines all behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"This is an extreme biological determinist position rather than interactionism. The interactionist view concludes that nature and nurture work together to influence behaviour."},{"text":"Nurture alone determines all behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"This is an extreme environmental determinist position rather than interactionism. Interactionists argue that biological inheritance and environmental experience work together in shaping behaviour."},{"text":"Nature and nurture operate independently.","correct":false,"explanation":"This overlooks the defining claim of interactionism that biological and environmental factors influence each other. Nature and nurture work together rather than operating as separate causes."}]},{"id":"790817f8-4cb9-4d36-9d80-6dae9f5fdf40","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How did cognitive psychology change the focus of early behaviourism?","back":"From observable behaviour to internal mental processes.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"From observable behaviour to internal mental processes.","correct":true,"explanation":"Early behaviourism restricted psychology to directly observable behaviour. Cognitive psychology expanded its focus by scientifically investigating internal processes such as memory, attention and perception."},{"text":"From internal mental processes to observable behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the historical change. Behaviourism focused on observable behaviour first, while cognitive psychology later restored internal mental processes as legitimate subjects of scientific study."},{"text":"From unconscious conflict to observable reflex responses.","correct":false,"explanation":"This describes a shift from psychodynamic ideas towards behaviourism, not the cognitive revolution. Cognitive psychology redirected attention from observable behaviour to internal mental processes."},{"text":"From biological structures to environmental reinforcement.","correct":false,"explanation":"This contrasts biological and behavioural explanations rather than identifying cognitive psychology’s contribution. The cognitive approach shifted attention from observable behaviour to internal mental processes."}]},{"id":"e816adca-6039-4c8b-a096-df5a6b76d190","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which memory distinction did Tulving (1972) develop?","back":"Episodic and semantic memory.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Episodic and semantic memory.","correct":true,"explanation":"Tulving distinguished episodic memory for personally experienced events from semantic memory for general knowledge, facts and meanings that are not tied to a specific episode."},{"text":"Short-term and long-term memory.","correct":false,"explanation":"This distinction is central to the multi-store model associated with Atkinson and Shiffrin. Tulving developed the distinction between episodic and semantic long-term memory."},{"text":"Procedural and declarative memory.","correct":false,"explanation":"This distinguishes skills from consciously reportable knowledge, but it is not the specific 1972 distinction asked for. Tulving differentiated episodic memory from semantic memory."},{"text":"Prospective and retrospective memory.","correct":false,"explanation":"This distinction concerns remembering future intentions versus past information. Tulving’s 1972 distinction was between episodic memory for events and semantic memory for knowledge."}]},{"id":"6c1b0794-a21d-48e5-bded-d69e6cd6d032","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why can a token economy be criticised as social control?","back":"

Consent may be limited by institutional power.
Behaviour may change only while rewards are available.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Consent may be limited by institutional power.
Behaviour may change only while rewards are available.

","correct":true,"explanation":"Institutions may pressure vulnerable individuals into participating, making consent questionable. Token economies may also produce only temporary compliance because behaviour can revert when rewards stop."},{"text":"

Consent is guaranteed by institutional rules.
Behaviour changes permanently without rewards.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Institutional rules do not guarantee freely given consent, especially where power is unequal. Token economies may create temporary compliance that lasts only while rewards remain available."},{"text":"

Consent may be improved by institutional power.
Behaviour may change only while punishments are available.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Institutional power can restrict rather than improve genuine consent, and token economies depend primarily on rewards, not punishment. Behaviour may therefore change only while rewards are offered."},{"text":"

Consent may be limited by individual memory.
Behaviour may change only while therapists are available.

","correct":false,"explanation":"The social-control criticism concerns unequal institutional power, not memory limitations. It also argues that behaviour may be maintained only while token rewards remain available."}]},{"id":"37bf0770-4f9a-4412-9f80-f99a32491fcb","cardType":"basic","points":3,"front":"Why is socially sensitive research a balanced issue rather than simply wrong?","back":"

Misuse can harm groups or rights.
Responsible research can challenge prejudice and improve policy.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Misuse can harm groups or rights.
Responsible research can challenge prejudice and improve policy.

","correct":true,"explanation":"Socially sensitive research creates genuine risks when findings are misused, but responsible investigation can expose discrimination and support beneficial policy changes. Its ethical acceptability therefore depends on consequences and safeguards."},{"text":"

Misuse can invalidate findings or methods.
Responsible research can guarantee objectivity and remove bias.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Social sensitivity concerns potential effects on groups and rights, not simply methodological validity. Research cannot guarantee objectivity; the balance comes from possible harm versus challenging prejudice and improving policy."},{"text":"

Researchers must avoid controversial or political topics.
Socially sensitive studies can never benefit society or policy.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Treating all controversial research as unacceptable ignores its possible social value. Although misuse can harm groups or rights, responsible studies may challenge prejudice and lead to better policy."},{"text":"

Participants can withdraw consent or request debriefing.
Ethical guidelines can eliminate every possible social consequence.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Consent and debriefing protect individual participants but do not address every wider social effect, and guidelines cannot eliminate all risk. The issue is balanced because research may cause harm or produce social benefits."}]}]}],"examCountdown":{"examDate":"2027-05-10","paperLabel":"Paper 1"},"heading":"Issues and debates","title":"Issues and debates Flashcards","topbar":{"backHref":"/as-level/psychology/edexcel/flashcards"},"topicSidebar":"$L38"}]}],"topicId":"475c77f6-674f-5eae-a188-003e483e100c","walled":"$L39"}],"$L3a","$L3b"]