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Reinforcing or punishing consequences alter the probability that the behaviour will occur again."},{"text":"intentions","correct":false,"explanation":"Intentions may influence voluntary action, but they are not the central basis of operant conditioning. The theory proposes that behaviour is shaped by its consequences."},{"text":"antecedents","correct":false,"explanation":"Antecedents occur before a behaviour and may signal when consequences are available, but operant conditioning primarily proposes that behaviour is a function of its consequences."},{"text":"observations","correct":false,"explanation":"Learning through observation belongs to social learning theory rather than basic operant conditioning. Operant behaviour is shaped by the consequences that follow it."}]},{"id":"18cb89f4-f04f-43ea-9d6a-14a8fbc790ee","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"In operant conditioning, what happens to behaviour followed by a desirable consequence?","back":"It becomes more likely to be repeated.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It becomes more likely to be repeated.","correct":true,"explanation":"A desirable consequence acts as reinforcement, increasing the probability that the behaviour producing it will be performed again in similar circumstances."},{"text":"It becomes less likely to be repeated.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the effect of reinforcement and instead describes the intended effect of punishment. A desirable consequence makes the preceding behaviour more likely to be repeated."},{"text":"It becomes no more likely to be repeated.","correct":false,"explanation":"This assumes that consequences have no effect on learning. In operant conditioning, a desirable consequence reinforces the behaviour, making repetition more likely."},{"text":"It becomes more likely to be avoided.","correct":false,"explanation":"Avoidance is associated with escaping or preventing aversive outcomes. When a behaviour produces a desirable consequence, that behaviour becomes more likely to be repeated."}]},{"id":"e89047e3-de3c-4a9d-8092-22a9f78cbfd7","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"B.F. Skinner studied operant conditioning scientifically using the [ ].","back":"B.F. Skinner studied operant conditioning scientifically using the Skinner Box.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Skinner Box","correct":true,"explanation":"The Skinner Box allowed controlled study of how animals changed behaviours such as lever pressing in response to reinforcement and punishment."},{"text":"puzzle box","correct":false,"explanation":"The puzzle box was used by Edward Thorndike to investigate trial-and-error learning and the law of effect. Skinner scientifically studied operant conditioning using the Skinner Box."},{"text":"Bobo doll","correct":false,"explanation":"The Bobo doll was used by Bandura to investigate observational learning and imitation. Skinner used the Skinner Box to study operant conditioning experimentally."},{"text":"Little Albert","correct":false,"explanation":"Little Albert was Watson and Rayner’s participant in a classical conditioning study of fear. Skinner investigated operant conditioning using the Skinner Box."}]},{"id":"93eef395-cd11-4dab-aba5-e5d887946b2a","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Reinforcement [ ] behaviour; punishment [ ] behaviour.","back":"Reinforcement increases behaviour; punishment decreases behaviour.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Reinforcement increases behaviour; punishment decreases behaviour.","correct":true,"explanation":"Reinforcement makes a behaviour more likely to recur, whereas punishment makes it less likely. These effects define the two types of operant consequence."},{"text":"Reinforcement decreases behaviour; punishment decreases behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"This incorrectly gives reinforcement the same effect as punishment. Reinforcement increases the future likelihood of behaviour, while punishment decreases it."},{"text":"Reinforcement increases behaviour; punishment increases behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses punishment with reinforcement. Reinforcement increases the future likelihood of behaviour, but punishment is intended to decrease it."},{"text":"Reinforcement decreases behaviour; punishment increases behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"This completely reverses the two definitions. Reinforcement increases the likelihood of behaviour recurring, whereas punishment decreases its likelihood."}]},{"id":"e3e6f4fa-e852-4fd9-9bd8-44e31fd6a274","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"In operant conditioning, positive means a stimulus is [ ]; negative means a stimulus is [ ].","back":"In operant conditioning, positive means a stimulus is added; negative means a stimulus is removed.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"In operant conditioning, positive means a stimulus is added; negative means a stimulus is removed.","correct":true,"explanation":"Positive and negative describe whether a stimulus is introduced or taken away, not whether it is pleasant or unpleasant."},{"text":"In operant conditioning, positive means a stimulus is removed; negative means a stimulus is removed.","correct":false,"explanation":"This wrongly treats both terms as removal. Positive means that a stimulus is added, whereas negative means that a stimulus is removed."},{"text":"In operant conditioning, positive means a stimulus is added; negative means a stimulus is added.","correct":false,"explanation":"This wrongly treats both terms as addition. Positive means that a stimulus is added, whereas negative means that a stimulus is removed."},{"text":"In operant conditioning, positive means a stimulus is removed; negative means a stimulus is added.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the technical meanings, often confused with pleasant and unpleasant. Positive means added, while negative means removed."}]},{"id":"43a82a89-89fa-4b81-8dd6-06637b6266f2","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"A pleasant stimulus is added after a behaviour, and the behaviour increases. What consequence is this?","back":"Positive reinforcement.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Positive reinforcement.","correct":true,"explanation":"Adding a pleasant stimulus makes this positive, while the resulting increase in behaviour makes it reinforcement. Both features identify positive reinforcement."},{"text":"Negative reinforcement.","correct":false,"explanation":"Negative reinforcement also increases behaviour, but it does so by removing or avoiding an aversive stimulus. Adding a pleasant stimulus is positive reinforcement."},{"text":"Positive punishment.","correct":false,"explanation":"Positive punishment involves adding an aversive stimulus to reduce behaviour. Adding a pleasant stimulus and increasing behaviour instead describes positive reinforcement."},{"text":"Negative punishment.","correct":false,"explanation":"Negative punishment removes a pleasant stimulus to reduce behaviour. Adding a pleasant stimulus so that behaviour increases is positive reinforcement."}]},{"id":"ab08d935-1eba-4fdf-9a4b-38c28ee84998","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"An aversive stimulus is removed or avoided, and the behaviour increases. What consequence is this?","back":"Negative reinforcement.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Negative reinforcement.","correct":true,"explanation":"Removing or avoiding an aversive stimulus makes this negative, while the increase in behaviour makes it reinforcement. Therefore, it is negative reinforcement."},{"text":"Positive reinforcement.","correct":false,"explanation":"Positive reinforcement increases behaviour by adding a pleasant stimulus. When behaviour increases because an aversive stimulus is removed or avoided, the consequence is negative reinforcement."},{"text":"Positive punishment.","correct":false,"explanation":"Positive punishment adds an aversive stimulus and decreases behaviour. Removing or avoiding an aversive stimulus so that behaviour increases is negative reinforcement."},{"text":"Negative punishment.","correct":false,"explanation":"Negative punishment removes a pleasant stimulus to decrease behaviour. Removing an aversive stimulus and thereby increasing behaviour is negative reinforcement."}]},{"id":"a0e3662d-cbea-496b-8ddf-20adb90fc748","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"An aversive stimulus is added after a behaviour, and the behaviour decreases. What consequence is this?","back":"Positive punishment.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Positive punishment.","correct":true,"explanation":"Adding an aversive stimulus makes this positive, while the resulting decrease in behaviour makes it punishment. Both features identify positive punishment."},{"text":"Positive reinforcement.","correct":false,"explanation":"Positive reinforcement adds a pleasant stimulus and increases behaviour. Adding an aversive stimulus in order to decrease behaviour is positive punishment."},{"text":"Negative reinforcement.","correct":false,"explanation":"Negative reinforcement removes or avoids an aversive stimulus and increases behaviour. Adding an aversive stimulus so that behaviour decreases is positive punishment."},{"text":"Negative punishment.","correct":false,"explanation":"Negative punishment decreases behaviour by removing a pleasant stimulus. Adding an aversive stimulus to decrease behaviour is instead positive punishment."}]},{"id":"d4985679-ccfd-48f1-b72a-f99bc6e6d649","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"A pleasant stimulus is removed after a behaviour, and the behaviour decreases. What consequence is this?","back":"Negative punishment.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Negative punishment.","correct":true,"explanation":"Negative punishment removes a desirable stimulus following behaviour, reducing the likelihood that the behaviour will be repeated in the future."},{"text":"Positive punishment.","correct":false,"explanation":"Positive punishment involves adding an unpleasant stimulus after a behaviour. Removing something pleasant to reduce behaviour is negative punishment."},{"text":"Negative reinforcement.","correct":false,"explanation":"Negative reinforcement removes an unpleasant stimulus to increase behaviour. Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease behaviour is negative punishment."},{"text":"Positive reinforcement.","correct":false,"explanation":"Positive reinforcement adds a pleasant stimulus to increase behaviour. Taking away something pleasant so behaviour decreases is negative punishment."}]},{"id":"e896363a-9703-4d50-8fe6-d49e04a214bb","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which reinforcer type is naturally rewarding because it satisfies survival needs?","back":"A primary reinforcer.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A primary reinforcer.","correct":true,"explanation":"Primary reinforcers are naturally rewarding because they satisfy innate biological or survival needs, such as the needs for food, water or warmth."},{"text":"A secondary reinforcer.","correct":false,"explanation":"Secondary reinforcers acquire value through learned associations with primary reinforcers. A naturally rewarding stimulus that satisfies survival needs is a primary reinforcer."},{"text":"A conditioned reinforcer.","correct":false,"explanation":"A conditioned reinforcer gains its value through association and is therefore learned. A reinforcer with innate survival value is a primary reinforcer."},{"text":"A generalised reinforcer.","correct":false,"explanation":"A generalised reinforcer is learned and associated with several other reinforcers, as money is. Natural rewards satisfying survival needs are primary reinforcers."}]},{"id":"35b7f450-06d6-481a-b916-e1072046b847","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Secondary reinforcers become reinforcing through [ ] associations with primary reinforcers.","back":"Secondary reinforcers become reinforcing through classical conditioning associations with primary reinforcers.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"classical conditioning","correct":true,"explanation":"Classical conditioning creates an association between a neutral stimulus and an existing primary reinforcer, allowing the neutral stimulus to become a secondary reinforcer."},{"text":"operant conditioning","correct":false,"explanation":"Operant conditioning changes behaviour through its consequences, but secondary reinforcers gain their value by classical conditioning associations with established primary reinforcers."},{"text":"observational learning","correct":false,"explanation":"Observational learning involves acquiring behaviour by watching and imitating models. Secondary reinforcers instead gain value through classical conditioning associations with primary reinforcers."},{"text":"biological inheritance","correct":false,"explanation":"Biological inheritance explains innate characteristics, not learned reinforcing value. Secondary reinforcers become effective through classical conditioning associations with primary reinforcers."}]},{"id":"928bb282-6f6c-4d55-a7a6-8dd8637ac69d","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why can a £10 note reinforce behaviour despite having no biological value?","back":"It can be exchanged for primary reinforcers.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It can be exchanged for primary reinforcers.","correct":true,"explanation":"Money is a secondary reinforcer because it can be exchanged for primary reinforcers, such as food, that directly satisfy biological needs."},{"text":"It can be treated as an innate primary reinforcer.","correct":false,"explanation":"Money has no innate biological value, so it is not a primary reinforcer. It reinforces behaviour because it can be exchanged for primary reinforcers."},{"text":"It can be used without any learned association.","correct":false,"explanation":"The reinforcing value of money is learned rather than automatic. A £10 note is valuable because it can be exchanged for primary reinforcers."},{"text":"It can be consumed to satisfy biological survival needs.","correct":false,"explanation":"A banknote cannot itself satisfy biological needs such as hunger or thirst. It reinforces behaviour because it can be exchanged for primary reinforcers."}]},{"id":"03fc9372-0adb-49a3-9ad7-de638208b919","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"In a token economy, why do tokens shape behaviour?","back":"They are secondary reinforcers exchangeable for rewards.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They are secondary reinforcers exchangeable for rewards.","correct":true,"explanation":"Tokens acquire reinforcing value through their learned association with rewards and can therefore strengthen desired behaviour before being exchanged for those rewards."},{"text":"They are primary reinforcers satisfying survival needs.","correct":false,"explanation":"Tokens do not directly satisfy innate survival needs, so they are not primary reinforcers. They are secondary reinforcers exchangeable for rewards."},{"text":"They are positive punishers suppressing unwanted responses.","correct":false,"explanation":"Tokens are presented to strengthen desired behaviour rather than to suppress behaviour. They function as secondary reinforcers that can be exchanged for rewards."},{"text":"They are unconditioned stimuli producing reflex responses.","correct":false,"explanation":"Tokens have learned value and do not automatically elicit reflexes. They shape behaviour as secondary reinforcers that can be exchanged for rewards."}]},{"id":"f38a3862-fd3a-4974-8935-9bfe5b755f5e","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which reinforcement schedule reinforces every response and produces rapid acquisition but fast extinction?","back":"Continuous reinforcement.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Continuous reinforcement.","correct":true,"explanation":"Continuous reinforcement rewards every occurrence of the target response, producing rapid learning but also rapid extinction when reinforcement is withdrawn."},{"text":"Fixed-ratio reinforcement.","correct":false,"explanation":"A fixed-ratio schedule reinforces after a set number of responses rather than after every response. Reinforcing every response is continuous reinforcement."},{"text":"Variable-ratio reinforcement.","correct":false,"explanation":"A variable-ratio schedule reinforces after an unpredictable number of responses and is highly resistant to extinction. Every response is rewarded under continuous reinforcement."},{"text":"Fixed-interval reinforcement.","correct":false,"explanation":"A fixed-interval schedule reinforces the first appropriate response after a predictable time period. Rewarding every response is continuous reinforcement."}]},{"id":"c97b0aa6-90a4-4993-a21f-122554b3fb4e","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Partial reinforcement makes behaviour more [ ] than continuous reinforcement.","back":"Partial reinforcement makes behaviour more resistant to extinction than continuous reinforcement.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"resistant to extinction","correct":true,"explanation":"With partial reinforcement, some unrewarded responses are normal during learning, so behaviour persists longer when rewards stop completely and is more resistant to extinction."},{"text":"vulnerable to extinction","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the partial reinforcement effect. 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This makes behaviour more resistant to extinction."}]},{"id":"023b30d0-cc2c-4dce-85d2-7047095ea769","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which schedule reinforces after a set, predictable amount of time?","back":"Fixed interval.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Fixed interval.","correct":true,"explanation":"A fixed-interval schedule reinforces the first appropriate response after a set, predictable period of time has elapsed."},{"text":"Variable interval.","correct":false,"explanation":"A variable-interval schedule reinforces after changing, unpredictable periods of time. A set and predictable amount of time defines a fixed-interval schedule."},{"text":"Fixed ratio.","correct":false,"explanation":"A fixed-ratio schedule depends on completing a set number of responses, not waiting for a set time. Predictable timing indicates a fixed interval."},{"text":"Variable ratio.","correct":false,"explanation":"A variable-ratio schedule reinforces after an unpredictable number of responses. 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Changing periods of time indicate a variable interval schedule."},{"text":"Fixed ratio.","correct":false,"explanation":"Fixed ratio schedules reinforce after a set number of responses, not after changing periods of time. The schedule described is variable interval."}]},{"id":"be5b2237-915c-4b75-9fca-f30fb1ea5a73","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which schedule reinforces after a set, predictable number of responses?","back":"Fixed ratio.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Fixed ratio.","correct":true,"explanation":"A fixed ratio schedule provides reinforcement after a set number of responses. Ratio refers to responses, and fixed means the requirement is predictable."},{"text":"Variable ratio.","correct":false,"explanation":"Variable ratio schedules require a changing, unpredictable number of responses. A set and predictable response requirement defines a fixed ratio schedule."},{"text":"Fixed interval.","correct":false,"explanation":"Fixed interval schedules provide reinforcement after a predictable amount of time, not a predictable number of responses. The correct schedule is fixed ratio."},{"text":"Variable interval.","correct":false,"explanation":"Variable interval schedules depend on changing periods of time rather than a set response count. A predictable number of responses indicates a fixed ratio schedule."}]},{"id":"bc469691-6867-4ad2-9604-c56bc66defb0","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which schedule reinforces after an unpredictable, changing number of responses?","back":"Variable ratio.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Variable ratio.","correct":true,"explanation":"A variable ratio schedule provides reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses. 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Uncertainty about when reinforcement will occur makes variable ratio behaviour extremely resistant to extinction."},{"text":"A variable ratio schedule produces the lowest rate of responding and is extremely resistant to extinction.","correct":false,"explanation":"The resistance to extinction is accurate, but the response rate is not low. Variable ratio schedules produce the highest rate because every response might bring reinforcement."},{"text":"A variable ratio schedule produces the lowest rate of responding and is extremely easy to extinguish.","correct":false,"explanation":"Both claims reverse the effects of unpredictable reinforcement. Variable ratio schedules produce the highest rate of responding and make behaviour extremely resistant to extinction."}]},{"id":"6df02665-baa2-48c5-b368-ba76f205786a","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why did Skinner Box studies support clear cause-and-effect conclusions?","back":"

Controlled environment.
Consequences manipulated and response frequency measured.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Controlled environment.
Consequences manipulated and response frequency measured.

","correct":true,"explanation":"The controlled Skinner Box allowed consequences to be systematically changed while responses were objectively counted. This isolation of variables supported conclusions that reinforcement or punishment caused behavioural changes."},{"text":"

Naturalistic environment.
Behaviour observed without manipulating consequences.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Naturalistic observation without manipulation can identify associations but cannot clearly establish causation. Skinner instead controlled the environment, manipulated consequences and measured response frequency."},{"text":"

Uncontrolled environment.
Consequences varied alongside several extraneous variables.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Allowing extraneous variables to change would prevent researchers from identifying the cause of behaviour. Skinner Boxes controlled the environment while consequences were manipulated and responses measured."},{"text":"

Interview-based evidence.
Participants reported how reinforcement affected them.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Skinner Box findings came from controlled behavioural experiments, not subjective interviews. Researchers manipulated consequences and objectively measured response frequency, allowing clearer causal conclusions."}]},{"id":"e90064be-2236-4bec-be3d-179684357c59","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What human factor is ignored by environmental determinism in operant conditioning?","back":"Free will and cognitive choice.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Free will and cognitive choice.","correct":true,"explanation":"Environmental determinism treats behaviour as caused by external reinforcement and punishment histories. This leaves little room for people to exercise free will or make deliberate cognitive choices."},{"text":"Reinforcement histories and learned habits.","correct":false,"explanation":"Reinforcement histories and learned habits are central to operant conditioning rather than ignored by it. The neglected human factor is free will and the capacity for cognitive choice."},{"text":"Environmental cues and external consequences.","correct":false,"explanation":"Environmental cues and external consequences are precisely what environmental determinism emphasises. Its limitation is that it overlooks free will and conscious cognitive choice."},{"text":"Observable behaviour and response frequency.","correct":false,"explanation":"Operant conditioning directly studies observable behaviour and response frequency, so these are not ignored. Environmental determinism instead neglects free will and cognitive choice."}]},{"id":"a2341ea1-f9d0-437d-af5a-c2c16c4f1e42","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why is extrapolating Skinner’s animal research to humans problematic?","back":"Humans have higher cognition, language and moral reasoning.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Humans have higher cognition, language and moral reasoning.","correct":true,"explanation":"Human behaviour is influenced by advanced thought, language and moral judgement that laboratory animals do not possess to the same degree. Animal findings may therefore not generalise fully."},{"text":"Humans have simpler cognition, no language and no moral reasoning.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the relevant species difference. Humans possess higher cognition, language and moral reasoning, making direct generalisation from animal behaviour potentially misleading."},{"text":"Humans and animals have identical cognition, language and moral reasoning.","correct":false,"explanation":"Assuming psychological abilities are identical is the extrapolation problem itself. Humans have more advanced cognition, language and moral reasoning, which may alter their responses to consequences."},{"text":"Animals have higher cognition, complex language and stronger moral reasoning.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the established difference between humans and laboratory animals. Humans have higher cognition, language and moral reasoning, limiting direct generalisation from Skinner’s research."}]},{"id":"df1c6af5-dda6-407f-9678-23e0df7c4eaa","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Which treatment of animals made Skinner’s research ethically questionable?","back":"Animals were food-deprived and exposed to electric shocks.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Animals were food-deprived and exposed to electric shocks.","correct":true,"explanation":"Food deprivation was used to increase motivation for rewards, while electric shocks could act as aversive consequences. Both procedures risked distress and harm, creating ethical concerns."},{"text":"Animals were overfed and exposed to bright lights.","correct":false,"explanation":"Overfeeding and exposure to bright lights were not the treatments underlying the stated ethical criticism. Skinner’s animals were food-deprived and sometimes exposed to electric shocks."},{"text":"Animals were freely fed and exposed to pleasant sounds.","correct":false,"explanation":"Free feeding and pleasant sounds would not explain the principal welfare concerns. The ethical criticism focused on food deprivation and exposure to electric shocks."},{"text":"Animals were sleep-deprived and exposed to loud music.","correct":false,"explanation":"Sleep deprivation and loud music were not the ethically questionable procedures associated with these studies. The relevant treatments were food deprivation and electric shocks."}]}]}],"examCountdown":{"examDate":"2027-05-10","paperLabel":"Paper 1"},"heading":"Main features of operant conditioning","title":"Main features of operant conditioning Flashcards","topbar":{"backHref":"/as-level/psychology/edexcel/flashcards"},"topicSidebar":"$L90"}]}],"topicId":"1d9c865e-e496-548f-b4c5-bfeeb1f03b40","walled":"$L91"}],"$L92","$L93"]