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retrieval, so recollections are interpretations rather than exact recordings of experience."},{"text":"exact visual record","correct":false,"explanation":"Treating memory as an exact record reflects the camera analogy. The correct answer is active cognitive process because memory selects, interprets and reconstructs information."},{"text":"inactive storage system","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses memory with passive storage. The correct answer is active cognitive process because existing knowledge and later experiences can shape what is encoded and recalled."},{"text":"automatic sensory reflex","correct":false,"explanation":"A reflex is an immediate, involuntary response rather than a system for encoding and retrieving information. Memory is an active cognitive process involving interpretation and reconstruction."}]},{"id":"15d2fe8a-b0a7-4c02-b92c-69bda90f2c3f","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"[ ] is how quickly a person takes in information, makes sense of it, and carries out mental operations.","back":"Processing speed is how quickly a person takes in information, makes sense of it, and carries out mental operations.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Processing speed","correct":true,"explanation":"Processing speed concerns the rate at which information is taken in, interpreted and mentally operated upon, which can influence encoding, working memory and retrieval."},{"text":"Attention span","correct":false,"explanation":"Attention span concerns how long concentration can be maintained, not the rate of mental operations. The correct term is Processing speed, which describes how quickly information is handled."},{"text":"Retrieval accuracy","correct":false,"explanation":"Retrieval accuracy concerns how correctly stored information is recalled, not how rapidly information is processed. The correct term for the rate of mental operations is Processing speed."},{"text":"Memory capacity","correct":false,"explanation":"Memory capacity refers to how much information can be held, whereas the definition concerns how quickly mental operations occur. The correct term is Processing speed."}]},{"id":"af5051d0-9d5f-4995-a2bf-15cd3a3d0333","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"When information is presented quickly, how can slower processing speed affect encoding?","back":"Fewer details are encoded before the information changes.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Fewer details are encoded before the information changes.","correct":true,"explanation":"Slower processing leaves less time to take in and interpret rapidly presented material, so fewer details can be encoded before new information replaces it."},{"text":"More details are encoded before the information changes.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the relationship between processing speed and encoding. Slower processing means fewer details are encoded because the information may change before it is fully processed."},{"text":"Only visual details are encoded before the information changes.","correct":false,"explanation":"Processing speed does not restrict encoding specifically to visual material. The key effect is that fewer details of any relevant type are encoded before the information changes."},{"text":"The same details are encoded before the information changes.","correct":false,"explanation":"This overlooks the limited time available during rapid presentation. Slower processing means fewer details are encoded because the person cannot process everything before it changes."}]},{"id":"4f26b036-6e5b-4799-9545-04a5279b6c39","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"With slower processing speed, recall is more likely to rely on what?","back":"The overall gist, not precise details.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The overall gist, not precise details.","correct":true,"explanation":"When detailed information cannot be processed or maintained efficiently, recall is more likely to preserve the general meaning or gist rather than exact features."},{"text":"The exact wording, not general meaning.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the expected pattern: exact wording requires detailed encoding. With slower processing speed, recall is more likely to rely on the overall gist, not precise details."},{"text":"The most recent detail, not general meaning.","correct":false,"explanation":"Recency may influence recall, but it is not the main consequence described here. Slower processing encourages reliance on the overall gist rather than isolated precise details."},{"text":"The emotional tone, not general meaning.","correct":false,"explanation":"Emotional tone can sometimes aid memory, but it is not the general basis of recall caused by slower processing. Recall is more likely to rely on the overall gist."}]},{"id":"47e4dbd0-a2fd-4c44-978a-63b86b70b97a","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How can faster mental operations support working memory?","back":"They help the person hold and manipulate information.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They help the person hold and manipulate information.","correct":true,"explanation":"Working memory requires information to be maintained while it is transformed or used. Faster mental operations reduce delay and help the person keep this information active."},{"text":"They help the person store information permanently.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses working memory with long-term storage. Faster mental operations support working memory by helping the person hold and manipulate information over a short period."},{"text":"They help the person ignore all incoming information.","correct":false,"explanation":"Working memory must process relevant incoming information rather than ignore everything. Faster operations help the person hold and manipulate information before it fades or is displaced."},{"text":"They help the person recall every detail accurately.","correct":false,"explanation":"Faster processing does not guarantee perfect recall, because attention and anxiety can still interfere. Its working-memory benefit is helping the person hold and manipulate information."}]},{"id":"5df4381c-1bbb-4822-8d3c-91bbf78cea43","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"When is faster retrieval access especially useful?","back":"During recall under time pressure.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"During recall under time pressure.","correct":true,"explanation":"Faster retrieval is especially beneficial when an answer must be produced quickly, because stored information can be accessed before the available response time runs out."},{"text":"During encoding without focused attention.","correct":false,"explanation":"Retrieval access concerns bringing stored information back, not encoding unattended material. It is especially useful during recall under time pressure, when answers must be accessed quickly."},{"text":"During storage over long intervals.","correct":false,"explanation":"Long-term storage concerns retaining information, whereas retrieval access concerns finding it. Faster access is especially useful during recall under time pressure."},{"text":"During learning through repeated rehearsal.","correct":false,"explanation":"Repeated rehearsal mainly supports encoding and maintenance rather than retrieval speed. Faster retrieval access is especially useful during recall under time pressure, such as a timed test."}]},{"id":"bcc57f09-9ccd-483f-bde7-d7fa530c438b","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why is processing speed not a complete explanation for poor recall?","back":"Other factors such as attention or anxiety can affect memory.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Other factors such as attention or anxiety can affect memory.","correct":true,"explanation":"Memory performance depends on several interacting influences. Poor attention can weaken encoding, while anxiety can disrupt concentration or retrieval, even when processing speed is adequate."},{"text":"Poor recall is caused entirely by lack of intelligence.","correct":false,"explanation":"This wrongly reduces recall to general intelligence and treats one cause as sufficient. Processing speed is incomplete because other factors such as attention or anxiety can affect memory."},{"text":"Processing speed affects recognition but never recall.","correct":false,"explanation":"Processing speed can influence both recognition and recall, so this absolute distinction is false. It is not a complete explanation because attention or anxiety can also affect memory."},{"text":"Poor recall always reflects permanent memory loss.","correct":false,"explanation":"Temporary problems with attention, anxiety or retrieval can reduce recall without any permanent loss. Processing speed is therefore only one of several possible influences on memory."}]},{"id":"f6f53696-c552-4647-928a-ce675dc159d2","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"A [ ] is an organised package of knowledge, expectations and beliefs about a person, object, event or situation.","back":"A schema is an organised package of knowledge, expectations and beliefs about a person, object, event or situation.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"schema","correct":true,"explanation":"A schema is a structured mental framework containing knowledge, expectations and beliefs, which helps people interpret new information and can influence how experiences are remembered."},{"text":"mnemonic","correct":false,"explanation":"A mnemonic is a strategy or cue used to improve recall, not an organised knowledge framework. The correct term is schema, which contains expectations and beliefs."},{"text":"heuristic","correct":false,"explanation":"A heuristic is a mental shortcut used to make judgements or decisions. The correct term is schema, an organised package of knowledge, expectations and beliefs."},{"text":"engram","correct":false,"explanation":"An engram refers to the physical or biological trace of a memory, not an organised framework of expectations. The correct psychological term for this knowledge package is schema."}]},{"id":"d2f78774-3848-4def-9797-3ad356e84691","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why do schemas make thinking efficient?","back":"They reduce the need to process every detail from scratch.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They reduce the need to process every detail from scratch.","correct":true,"explanation":"Schemas organise existing knowledge into frameworks, so familiar information can be interpreted without analysing every element afresh. This reduces cognitive effort and speeds up thinking."},{"text":"They increase the need to process every detail from scratch.","correct":false,"explanation":"Processing each feature separately would increase cognitive effort rather than improve efficiency. Schemas make thinking efficient by reducing the need to process every detail from scratch."},{"text":"They prevent prior knowledge from influencing new information.","correct":false,"explanation":"Schemas rely on existing knowledge rather than preventing it from being used. They improve efficiency by reducing the need to process every detail from scratch."},{"text":"They create exact copies of every experience in memory.","correct":false,"explanation":"Schemas do not preserve complete, exact records and can produce memory distortions. They make thinking efficient by reducing the need to process every detail from scratch."}]},{"id":"e06cbaa7-ec42-48ad-8d81-a45503b6a341","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How can schemas distort memory?","back":"Recall may follow what was expected, not what happened.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Recall may follow what was expected, not what happened.","correct":true,"explanation":"Schemas create expectations about what normally occurs, and these expectations can shape reconstruction during recall. Consequently, people may remember expected details instead of actual events."},{"text":"Recall may preserve what was experienced, exactly as it happened.","correct":false,"explanation":"Exact recall would show that memory had not been distorted. Schemas cause distortion when recall follows what was expected rather than what actually happened."},{"text":"Recall may depend only on what was noticed, not prior knowledge.","correct":false,"explanation":"Schemas can influence memory even when attention was initially focused, because distortion occurs during reconstruction. Recall may follow what was expected rather than what happened."},{"text":"Recall may become more accurate when confidence increases.","correct":false,"explanation":"Greater confidence does not protect a memory from schema-based distortion and may accompany inaccurate recall. Distortion occurs when recall follows expectations rather than actual events."}]},{"id":"c1efbab8-e1f8-422d-8527-50208c92202e","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"[ ] means recall actively rebuilds memory using fragments, schemas, expectations and current knowledge.","back":"Reconstructive memory means recall actively rebuilds memory using fragments, schemas, expectations and current knowledge.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Reconstructive memory","correct":true,"explanation":"Reconstructive memory describes recall as an active rebuilding process. Fragments of stored information are combined with schemas, expectations and present knowledge rather than reproduced exactly."},{"text":"Reproductive memory","correct":false,"explanation":"Reproductive memory implies that an experience is retrieved as an accurate copy, which contrasts with active rebuilding. The process described is reconstructive memory."},{"text":"Procedural memory","correct":false,"explanation":"Procedural memory stores learned skills and actions, such as cycling, rather than describing how recollections are actively rebuilt. The required term is reconstructive memory."},{"text":"Episodic memory","correct":false,"explanation":"Episodic memory concerns personally experienced events, but it does not specifically name the process of rebuilding recall from schemas and fragments. That process is reconstructive memory."}]},{"id":"6f674afc-efd5-4ae9-8dd2-8008e904bfaf","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What happened to unfamiliar details in Bartlett’s War of the Ghosts study?","back":"They were left out, altered, or made familiar.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They were left out, altered, or made familiar.","correct":true,"explanation":"Participants tended to omit unfamiliar elements, modify them or replace them with more culturally familiar details. This showed that schemas shaped their successive recollections."},{"text":"They were recalled exactly, without cultural influence.","correct":false,"explanation":"Bartlett found that unfamiliar details were especially vulnerable to schema-driven change, not accurately preserved. They were left out, altered or made more familiar."},{"text":"They were remembered better than familiar details.","correct":false,"explanation":"Unfamiliar details were not consistently remembered better; participants often struggled to fit them into existing schemas. They were therefore omitted, altered or made familiar."},{"text":"They were preserved unchanged in later reproductions.","correct":false,"explanation":"Successive reproductions did not retain unfamiliar details unchanged. Participants commonly left them out, altered them or made them familiar to fit cultural expectations."}]},{"id":"1c4d6846-03be-4356-83fc-2950e2e0bedb","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What did Bartlett conclude about memory?","back":"Recall is schema-guided reconstruction, not perfect reproduction.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Recall is schema-guided reconstruction, not perfect reproduction.","correct":true,"explanation":"Bartlett argued that people actively reconstruct past events using schemas and cultural expectations. Recall is therefore guided by existing knowledge rather than being an exact reproduction."},{"text":"Recall is literal reproduction, not schema-guided reconstruction.","correct":false,"explanation":"Bartlett rejected the idea that memories are retrieved as literal copies. He concluded that recall is schema-guided reconstruction rather than perfect reproduction."},{"text":"Recall is random invention, not guided by existing knowledge.","correct":false,"explanation":"The systematic changes across successive reproductions were linked to schemas, not random guessing. Bartlett concluded that recall is schema-guided reconstruction rather than accidental invention."},{"text":"Recall is culturally neutral retrieval, not expectation-based interpretation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Bartlett’s findings showed that cultural expectations influenced how participants recalled the story. He therefore viewed recall as schema-guided reconstruction, not culturally neutral retrieval."}]},{"id":"42fed1a2-f036-4c14-b9b6-623f5365f0ac","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Leaving out unfamiliar or schema-inconsistent details is [ ].","back":"Leaving out unfamiliar or schema-inconsistent details is omission.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"omission","correct":true,"explanation":"Omission occurs when information is excluded from recall, particularly because it is unfamiliar or does not fit an existing schema. The missing detail is not reproduced."},{"text":"rationalisation","correct":false,"explanation":"Rationalisation involves changing an odd detail so it appears more logical or understandable, rather than leaving it out. Removing a detail is omission."},{"text":"transformation","correct":false,"explanation":"Transformation changes information to fit expectations or cultural knowledge rather than removing it entirely. Leaving out a schema-inconsistent detail is omission."},{"text":"confabulation","correct":false,"explanation":"Confabulation involves producing fabricated details, often to fill gaps, rather than simply excluding information. Leaving an unfamiliar detail out is omission."}]},{"id":"713db0fa-67bc-4a34-b6cc-fd370cb559c2","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Changing strange details so they make more sense is [ ].","back":"Changing strange details so they make more sense is rationalisation.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"rationalisation","correct":true,"explanation":"Rationalisation makes an unfamiliar or strange feature seem more logical and understandable. The remembered detail is modified so that it better fits the participant’s existing knowledge."},{"text":"omission","correct":false,"explanation":"Omission means leaving a detail out of recall altogether, not changing it to make it more sensible. Such sense-making alteration is rationalisation."},{"text":"transformation","correct":false,"explanation":"Transformation more broadly alters details to match expectations or cultural knowledge. Specifically changing a strange detail so that it makes sense is rationalisation."},{"text":"repression","correct":false,"explanation":"Repression refers to an alleged unconscious blocking of distressing memories, not making strange information more understandable. The described reconstructive change is rationalisation."}]},{"id":"b1bd05e0-b06f-4eec-b92f-1171669d1271","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Altering details to fit expectations or cultural knowledge is [ ].","back":"Altering details to fit expectations or cultural knowledge is transformation.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"transformation","correct":true,"explanation":"Transformation occurs when remembered information is changed so that it conforms to existing schemas, expectations or cultural knowledge. The original detail is reconstructed in a different form."},{"text":"omission","correct":false,"explanation":"Omission removes an unfamiliar or inconsistent detail rather than altering it to match expectations. Changing the detail while retaining a modified version is transformation."},{"text":"rationalisation","correct":false,"explanation":"Rationalisation specifically makes a strange detail seem more sensible, while the broader alteration of details to fit expectations or cultural knowledge is transformation."},{"text":"reproduction","correct":false,"explanation":"Reproduction suggests that stored information is recalled without alteration. Changing details to fit expectations or cultural knowledge is instead called transformation."}]},{"id":"26ca513a-7862-41b3-acad-67cc937e240f","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why might someone falsely recall books in an office scene?","back":"Books fit their office schema, causing a memory intrusion.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Books fit their office schema, causing a memory intrusion.","correct":true,"explanation":"Schemas supply expected details when memories are reconstructed. Because books are commonly associated with offices, that expectation can be mistakenly incorporated into recall even when no books were present."},{"text":"Books fit their library schema, causing a memory intrusion.","correct":false,"explanation":"A library schema may include books, but it is not the schema activated by an office scene. The false recall occurs because books fit the person’s office schema."},{"text":"Books entered their sensory memory, causing a memory intrusion.","correct":false,"explanation":"Sensory memory briefly holds information that was actually detected rather than adding expected objects. Books are falsely recalled because an office schema supplies this plausible missing detail."},{"text":"Books exceeded their memory capacity, causing a memory intrusion.","correct":false,"explanation":"Capacity limits can cause information to be lost, but they do not explain the addition of an absent object. Schema-driven reconstruction creates the false memory of books."}]},{"id":"3c117fd4-8aeb-4709-a037-75b462e48dfe","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How can schemas improve expert memory?","back":"They organise information and give it meaning.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They organise information and give it meaning.","correct":true,"explanation":"Experts possess well-developed schemas that connect new material with existing knowledge. This organisation makes information meaningful, supporting more efficient encoding and later retrieval."},{"text":"They remove information and reduce its meaning.","correct":false,"explanation":"Schemas do not improve expert memory by stripping material of meaning. They organise new information around established knowledge, making it more meaningful and easier to remember."},{"text":"They prevent rehearsal and shorten its duration.","correct":false,"explanation":"Preventing rehearsal would generally weaken retention rather than improve it. Expert schemas enhance memory by organising information and providing meaningful links to existing knowledge."},{"text":"They eliminate retrieval and replace it with recognition.","correct":false,"explanation":"Expert memory still depends on retrieval, and schemas do not replace recall with recognition. Their advantage comes from organising information and giving it meaningful structure."}]},{"id":"a80e2fbd-6e4f-4b4d-a62a-c29b84820ff5","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What limits the generalisability of Bartlett’s study?","back":"His sample was mainly British students.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"His sample was mainly British students.","correct":true,"explanation":"A narrow sample of British students may not represent people from other cultures, ages or educational backgrounds, limiting how widely Bartlett’s findings can be generalised."},{"text":"His sample was mainly Native American adults.","correct":false,"explanation":"The story had Native American origins, but Bartlett’s participants were not mainly Native American adults. They were mainly British students, creating a culturally narrow sample."},{"text":"His sample was mainly British schoolchildren.","correct":false,"explanation":"Confusing students with younger school pupils misidentifies the sample. Bartlett mainly tested British students, so the results may not generalise beyond that educational and cultural group."},{"text":"His sample was mainly American university students.","correct":false,"explanation":"The common reliance on American university samples in psychology may make this tempting, but Bartlett mainly used British students, which restricts the study’s population validity."}]},{"id":"122646ad-2fec-426c-b236-2756a93b8fbe","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"[ ] is memory for events and information from your own life, including identity-linked memories.","back":"Autobiographical memory is memory for events and information from your own life, including identity-linked memories.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Autobiographical memory","correct":true,"explanation":"Autobiographical memory concerns a person’s own life history. It combines memories of personally experienced events with factual knowledge about the self and personal identity."},{"text":"Episodic memory","correct":false,"explanation":"Episodic memory covers personally experienced events with contextual details, but it does not include all factual, identity-linked self-knowledge. The broader term is autobiographical memory."},{"text":"Semantic memory","correct":false,"explanation":"Semantic memory stores factual knowledge, including some facts about the self, but excludes personally experienced episodes. Autobiographical memory includes both life events and identity-linked information."},{"text":"Prospective memory","correct":false,"explanation":"Prospective memory involves remembering to carry out intended actions in the future. Memory for personal life events and identity-related knowledge is called autobiographical memory."}]},{"id":"cb7ce68f-10e2-4a57-8e6a-d0344c060ea0","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why can two people remember the same shared event differently?","back":"They encode and interpret it through different personal meanings.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They encode and interpret it through different personal meanings.","correct":true,"explanation":"Memory is reconstructive rather than an exact recording. Each person’s goals, knowledge and identity shape how the shared event is encoded, interpreted and later recalled."},{"text":"They encode and interpret it through identical personal meanings.","correct":false,"explanation":"Identical meanings would not account for differing recollections. People bring distinct goals, experiences and identities to an event, so they construct different personal interpretations."},{"text":"They record and preserve it as different exact copies.","correct":false,"explanation":"Memory does not preserve exact copies of experience like a recording. Different recollections arise because each person reconstructs the event according to their own personal meanings."},{"text":"They retrieve and repeat it through different sensory stores.","correct":false,"explanation":"Sensory stores briefly retain incoming sights and sounds, but they do not explain lasting differences in recollection. Different personal meanings shape encoding and interpretation."}]},{"id":"6ce8d697-3f6a-4bea-82eb-1d634b9816c0","cardType":"basic","points":3,"front":"What Tulving distinction explains the two parts of autobiographical memory?","back":"

Episodic: specific events, what, where and when.
Semantic: factual self-knowledge.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Episodic: specific events, what, where and when.
Semantic: factual self-knowledge.

","correct":true,"explanation":"Tulving distinguished episodic memory for context-rich personal events from semantic memory for facts. Autobiographical memory contains both remembered experiences and factual knowledge about oneself."},{"text":"

Semantic: specific events, what, where and when.
Episodic: factual self-knowledge.

","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses Tulving’s categories. Episodic memory represents specific events with temporal and spatial context, whereas semantic memory includes factual knowledge about the self."},{"text":"

Procedural: specific events, what, where and when.
Semantic: factual self-knowledge.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Procedural memory concerns learned skills and actions, not specific personal events. Tulving’s relevant distinction is episodic memory for events and semantic memory for factual self-knowledge."},{"text":"

Episodic: factual knowledge, without time or place.
Procedural: factual self-knowledge.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Episodic memories normally include what happened, where and when, while procedural memory stores skills rather than self-facts. Semantic memory provides factual self-knowledge."}]},{"id":"bb23537b-3826-46d1-8ada-2cdb872ebca5","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"According to Conway and Pleydell-Pearce, autobiographical memory is linked to what?","back":"The self: goals, identity and life themes.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The self: goals, identity and life themes.","correct":true,"explanation":"Conway and Pleydell-Pearce proposed that autobiographical memories interact with the working self. Current goals, identity and broader life themes influence which memories are constructed and accessed."},{"text":"The senses: images, sounds and physical reflexes.","correct":false,"explanation":"Sensory features may form part of a memory, but the model specifically links autobiographical memory to the self, including personal goals, identity and life themes."},{"text":"The environment: rewards, punishments and conditioned responses.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reflects behaviourist learning principles rather than Conway and Pleydell-Pearce’s account. Their model connects autobiographical memory with goals, identity and life themes within the self."},{"text":"The phonological loop: sounds, words and rehearsal.","correct":false,"explanation":"The phonological loop is a working-memory component for verbal and auditory material. The autobiographical memory model instead emphasises the self, including goals, identity and life themes."}]},{"id":"d715dc1a-9622-4d9b-b58e-e7bb7f22953e","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why does confidence in an autobiographical memory not guarantee accuracy?","back":"It may still be reconstructed and influenced by schemas.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It may still be reconstructed and influenced by schemas.","correct":true,"explanation":"Confidence reflects how convincing a memory feels, not necessarily how accurately it matches the original event. Reconstruction and schema-based expectations can produce vivid, confidently held errors."},{"text":"It must have been accurately stored without any distortion.","correct":false,"explanation":"A strong feeling of certainty does not prove that storage was distortion-free. Autobiographical memories are reconstructed and may incorporate schema-consistent details that never occurred."},{"text":"It may have been rehearsed often and therefore become exact.","correct":false,"explanation":"Rehearsal can increase familiarity and confidence without guaranteeing accuracy. Repeated retelling may preserve or strengthen reconstructed, schema-influenced details as well as genuine ones."},{"text":"It must remain unchanged after its original encoding.","correct":false,"explanation":"Autobiographical memories are not fixed records that remain unchanged. Each retrieval can involve reconstruction, allowing schemas and later information to influence what is confidently recalled."}]},{"id":"e3097386-2a11-4bd3-984f-b007f18ec0c9","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why should police interviews avoid leading questions?","back":"They can distort recall through expectations or schemas.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They can distort recall through expectations or schemas.","correct":true,"explanation":"Leading questions can activate expectations or schemas that alter how an event is reconstructed, causing witnesses to incorporate suggested details into their recollection."},{"text":"They can strengthen recall through rehearsal or repetition.","correct":false,"explanation":"Rehearsal and repetition can sometimes strengthen memories, but this does not explain the danger of leading questions. Such questions can distort recall through expectations or schemas."},{"text":"They can prevent recall through decay or displacement.","correct":false,"explanation":"Decay and displacement are explanations for forgetting, not effects specifically produced by leading questions. Leading wording is dangerous because expectations or schemas can distort reconstructed memories."},{"text":"They can improve recall through context or state cues.","correct":false,"explanation":"Context and state cues may facilitate retrieval when they match encoding conditions, but leading questions can instead distort recall by introducing expectations or activating schemas."}]},{"id":"8c744e5d-54f5-46e5-9069-81076584428e","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why should witnesses be allowed time to recall freely?","back":"Memory may vary with processing speed and stress.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Memory may vary with processing speed and stress.","correct":true,"explanation":"Witnesses differ in how quickly they process and retrieve information, while stress can further disrupt recall. Allowing uninterrupted time accommodates these individual differences."},{"text":"Memory may improve with repeated prompting and pressure.","correct":false,"explanation":"Repeated prompting and pressure may increase stress or introduce misleading information rather than improve accuracy. Free recall allows for differences in processing speed and stress."},{"text":"Memory may depend on leading questions and rehearsal.","correct":false,"explanation":"Leading questions risk altering a witness’s account, while rehearsal does not justify allowing free recall time. The relevant individual differences are processing speed and responses to stress."},{"text":"Memory may become fixed with rapid questioning and stress.","correct":false,"explanation":"Rapid questioning and stress can hinder retrieval rather than fix a memory accurately. Witnesses need time because processing speed varies and stress can affect recall."}]},{"id":"4445f7d5-b502-4888-94fe-cd467271be92","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which BPS ethical principle protects participants recalling distressing memories?","back":"Protection from harm.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Protection from harm.","correct":true,"explanation":"Protection from harm requires researchers to minimise psychological distress and other risks, which is especially important when participants are asked to recall upsetting or traumatic memories."},{"text":"Right to withdraw.","correct":false,"explanation":"The right to withdraw lets participants leave a study or remove their data, but protection from harm specifically requires researchers to minimise distress caused by recalling painful memories."},{"text":"Informed consent.","correct":false,"explanation":"Informed consent ensures that participants understand the study before agreeing to take part, but protection from harm is the principle directly concerned with preventing psychological distress."},{"text":"Confidentiality of data.","correct":false,"explanation":"Confidentiality protects participants’ personal information and identities, but protection from harm is the principle requiring researchers to reduce distress when difficult memories are recalled."}]}]}],"examCountdown":{"examDate":"2027-05-10","paperLabel":"Paper 1"},"heading":"Individual differences in memory","title":"Individual differences in memory Flashcards","topbar":{"backHref":"/as-level/psychology/edexcel/flashcards"},"topicSidebar":"$L38"}]}],"topicId":"fc3eee31-e724-5aaa-85bf-0470b7af4d93","walled":"$L39"}],"$L3a","$L3b"]