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because a substance is being consumed."},{"text":"It causes pleasure to the person or others.","correct":false,"explanation":"Experiencing pleasure does not by itself make substance use misuse. The defining criterion in these notes is harm caused to the user or to other people."},{"text":"It causes tolerance in the person or others.","correct":false,"explanation":"Tolerance can be associated with dependence, but it is not the general criterion for drug misuse. Misuse is identified when substance use causes harm to the person or others."},{"text":"It causes withdrawal in the person or others.","correct":false,"explanation":"Withdrawal is a possible feature of dependence, not the defining feature of all drug misuse. Substance use counts as misuse here when it causes harm to the user or others."}]},{"id":"6a22613f-1c43-488c-809b-1fcfccef78c9","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Addiction/dependence involves compulsive use, craving, [ ], [ ] and difficulty stopping despite negative consequences.","back":"Addiction/dependence involves compulsive use, craving, tolerance, withdrawal symptoms and difficulty stopping despite negative consequences.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Addiction/dependence involves compulsive use, craving, tolerance, withdrawal symptoms and difficulty stopping despite negative consequences.","correct":true,"explanation":"Tolerance involves needing more of a substance to achieve the same effect, while withdrawal symptoms occur when use is reduced or stopped. Both are characteristic features of dependence."},{"text":"Addiction/dependence involves compulsive use, craving, sensitisation, withdrawal symptoms and difficulty stopping despite negative consequences.","correct":false,"explanation":"Sensitisation means an increased response after repeated exposure and is not the standard dependence feature required here. The correct features are tolerance and withdrawal symptoms."},{"text":"Addiction/dependence involves compulsive use, craving, tolerance, intoxication symptoms and difficulty stopping despite negative consequences.","correct":false,"explanation":"Intoxication describes the immediate effects of taking a drug, whereas dependence is associated with symptoms when the drug is reduced or stopped. The correct term is withdrawal symptoms."},{"text":"Addiction/dependence involves compulsive use, craving, intoxication, overdose symptoms and difficulty stopping despite negative consequences.","correct":false,"explanation":"Intoxication and overdose can occur without dependence and are not its defining paired features. Addiction is characterised here by tolerance and withdrawal symptoms alongside craving and compulsive use."}]},{"id":"ff7f02fd-eecf-4d62-b7c2-68858234121b","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which ethical principle is threatened if drug-use answers could reveal illegal behaviour?","back":"Confidentiality.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Confidentiality.","correct":true,"explanation":"Confidentiality requires researchers to protect participants’ private information. Drug-use responses revealing illegal behaviour could expose participants to social or legal consequences if disclosed."},{"text":"Protection from harm.","correct":false,"explanation":"Protection from harm concerns preventing physical or psychological injury. When answers could expose illegal conduct, the specifically threatened principle is confidentiality because private information might be disclosed."},{"text":"Informed consent.","correct":false,"explanation":"Informed consent requires participants to understand and agree to the study. The risk that their answers about illegal behaviour could be revealed instead concerns confidentiality."},{"text":"Right to withdraw.","correct":false,"explanation":"The right to withdraw allows participants to leave a study and remove their data. Protecting potentially incriminating drug-use answers from disclosure is instead an issue of confidentiality."}]},{"id":"3e9e3b2f-ef65-4361-81c3-ad09d6cd96b0","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Aversion therapy pairs a [ ] with an [ ] to create a learned aversion.","back":"Aversion therapy pairs a drug-related stimulus with an unpleasant stimulus to create a learned aversion.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Aversion therapy pairs a drug-related stimulus with an unpleasant stimulus to create a learned aversion.","correct":true,"explanation":"Through classical conditioning, a cue associated with drug use is repeatedly paired with something unpleasant. The drug-related cue then comes to produce an aversive response."},{"text":"Aversion therapy pairs a drug-related stimulus with an rewarding stimulus to create a learned aversion.","correct":false,"explanation":"A rewarding stimulus would reinforce attraction to the drug-related cue rather than produce avoidance. Aversion therapy pairs the drug-related stimulus with an unpleasant stimulus."},{"text":"Aversion therapy pairs a neutral stimulus with an unpleasant stimulus to create a learned aversion.","correct":false,"explanation":"Although classical conditioning can begin with a neutral stimulus, aversion therapy specifically targets a drug-related cue. That cue is paired with an unpleasant stimulus to reduce drug-seeking behaviour."},{"text":"Aversion therapy pairs a withdrawal symptom with an unpleasant stimulus to create a learned aversion.","correct":false,"explanation":"Withdrawal is a consequence of reducing or stopping drug use, not the cue targeted during aversion conditioning. A drug-related stimulus is paired with an unpleasant stimulus."}]},{"id":"46354f97-1ed9-4cb7-afcd-2b2289f15058","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What main protection-from-harm issue is raised by aversion therapy?","back":"It deliberately creates unpleasant physical or emotional reactions.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It deliberately creates unpleasant physical or emotional reactions.","correct":true,"explanation":"Aversion therapy intentionally produces discomfort so that the unwanted behaviour becomes associated with an aversive response. This raises protection-from-harm concerns even when the treatment aims to benefit the client."},{"text":"It may reveal private information about illegal drug use.","correct":false,"explanation":"Revealing private drug-use information would be a confidentiality problem, not the central protection-from-harm concern in aversion therapy. The harm issue is its deliberate production of unpleasant physical or emotional reactions."},{"text":"It may prevent participants from leaving the treatment early.","correct":false,"explanation":"Preventing someone from leaving would threaten the right to withdraw, but it is not an inherent feature of aversion therapy. The main harm concern is deliberately causing unpleasant reactions."},{"text":"It may conceal the true purpose of the treatment procedure.","correct":false,"explanation":"Concealing the procedure’s purpose would raise deception and informed-consent concerns. The main protection-from-harm issue is that aversion therapy intentionally creates unpleasant physical or emotional reactions."}]},{"id":"9e1b407b-d5a6-4e1c-ba26-d32f42253b5c","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What did Olds and Milner's rats do when reward-related brain areas were stimulated?","back":"They repeatedly pressed a lever for stimulation.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They repeatedly pressed a lever for stimulation.","correct":true,"explanation":"The rats repeatedly operated the lever to stimulate reward-related brain areas. This self-stimulation demonstrated that activating these areas acted as a powerful reinforcer."},{"text":"They repeatedly avoided a lever during stimulation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Avoidance would suggest that the stimulation was aversive. Instead, the rats repeatedly pressed a lever to obtain stimulation of reward-related areas, showing that it was reinforcing."},{"text":"They repeatedly fell asleep during stimulation.","correct":false,"explanation":"The stimulation did not primarily produce sleep or inactivity. The rats actively pressed a lever again and again to receive stimulation of reward-related brain areas."},{"text":"They repeatedly refused food after stimulation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Food refusal is not the key behavioural finding from the experiment. The crucial result was repeated lever pressing to obtain direct stimulation of reward-related brain areas."}]},{"id":"9d2ceff2-7d7d-4c1a-8695-c8950072b2ea","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What ethical issue is raised by Olds and Milner's implanted electrodes?","back":"Invasive animal harm versus scientific benefit.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Invasive animal harm versus scientific benefit.","correct":true,"explanation":"Implanting electrodes required invasive procedures that could cause pain, distress or lasting harm to the rats. Researchers must weigh this animal suffering against the study’s potential scientific value."},{"text":"Participant deception versus scientific benefit.","correct":false,"explanation":"Deception applies when human participants are misled about a study. The principal ethical concern here is the invasive harm caused to animals by implanting electrodes, weighed against scientific benefit."},{"text":"Researcher bias versus scientific benefit.","correct":false,"explanation":"Researcher bias concerns expectations influencing procedures or interpretations and is a methodological issue. Implanted electrodes instead raise an ethical conflict between invasive animal harm and scientific benefit."},{"text":"Participant confidentiality versus scientific benefit.","correct":false,"explanation":"Confidentiality protects private information supplied by human participants and is not the relevant issue for laboratory rats. The concern is invasive animal harm weighed against scientific benefit."}]},{"id":"6d310448-b739-44ea-bdec-9eeafbd9b9c1","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Why can researchers not usually make people take harmful drugs in studies?","back":"It would create unethical risk of harm.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It would create unethical risk of harm.","correct":true,"explanation":"Researchers have a duty to protect participants from physical and psychological harm. Requiring people to take dangerous substances would deliberately expose them to potentially serious adverse effects."},{"text":"It would create unreliable self-report data.","correct":false,"explanation":"Data reliability may affect research quality, but it does not explain the ethical prohibition on administering harmful drugs. Deliberate exposure would create an unacceptable risk of harm."},{"text":"It would create excessive researcher bias.","correct":false,"explanation":"Researcher bias can distort findings but is not why harmful drug administration is generally prohibited. The central ethical problem is exposing participants to an unacceptable risk of harm."},{"text":"It would create unavoidable demand characteristics.","correct":false,"explanation":"Demand characteristics occur when participants infer a study’s aim and alter their behaviour. The main barrier to making people take harmful drugs is the unethical risk of harm."}]},{"id":"987e3b57-5e46-4f6e-bde3-d0da4e3ba7a4","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why is applying rat reward findings to human addiction a generalisation problem?","back":"Human addiction includes culture, meaning and conscious decision-making.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Human addiction includes culture, meaning and conscious decision-making.","correct":true,"explanation":"Human addiction involves social and cognitive influences that laboratory rats cannot model fully, so findings from rat reward systems may not generalise directly to people."},{"text":"Human addiction is controlled only by automatic biological reward mechanisms.","correct":false,"explanation":"Assuming addiction is purely automatic overlooks important human influences. The generalisation problem arises because human addiction includes culture, meaning and conscious decision-making."},{"text":"Rat and human reward systems are identical in every relevant respect.","correct":false,"explanation":"Treating rat and human reward systems as identical removes rather than identifies the generalisation problem. Human addiction also involves culture, personal meaning and conscious choices."},{"text":"Human addiction excludes social context, beliefs and voluntary choices.","correct":false,"explanation":"Excluding social and cognitive influences is the mistaken reductionist assumption. Human addiction includes culture, meaning and conscious decision-making that rats cannot adequately represent."}]},{"id":"8dffde5b-35d9-4070-9a8a-6820623efc29","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Reductionism explains complex behaviour by breaking it into [ ], such as genes, neurotransmitters or stimulus-response learning.","back":"Reductionism explains complex behaviour by breaking it into simpler parts, such as genes, neurotransmitters or stimulus-response learning.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"simpler parts","correct":true,"explanation":"Reductionism analyses complex behaviour in terms of simpler components, such as biological mechanisms or basic learning processes, rather than explaining it at a holistic level."},{"text":"broader contexts","correct":false,"explanation":"Considering broad contexts is characteristic of holistic explanation, not reductionism. Reductionism breaks complex behaviour into simpler parts such as genes, neurotransmitters or learned associations."},{"text":"moral judgements","correct":false,"explanation":"Moral judgements evaluate whether behaviour is right or wrong rather than reducing it scientifically. Reductionism explains complex behaviour through simpler underlying parts or mechanisms."},{"text":"whole systems","correct":false,"explanation":"Focusing on whole systems is a holistic approach. Reductionism instead breaks complex behaviour down into simpler parts that can be investigated separately."}]},{"id":"04273b03-59ff-4d1e-b9e6-acbc562f09bc","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Dani and De Biasi (2001) linked nicotine addiction to [ ] and [ ] in reward pathways.","back":"Dani and De Biasi (2001) linked nicotine addiction to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors and dopamine activity in reward pathways.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Dani and De Biasi (2001) linked nicotine addiction to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors and dopamine activity in reward pathways.","correct":true,"explanation":"Dani and De Biasi identified nicotine’s action at nicotinic acetylcholine receptors and the resulting dopamine activity within brain reward pathways as mechanisms underlying addiction."},{"text":"Dani and De Biasi (2001) linked nicotine addiction to muscarinic acetylcholine receptors and dopamine activity in reward pathways.","correct":false,"explanation":"Nicotine primarily binds to nicotinic rather than muscarinic acetylcholine receptors. Dani and De Biasi linked nicotinic receptor activation with dopamine activity in reward pathways."},{"text":"Dani and De Biasi (2001) linked nicotine addiction to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors and serotonin activity in reward pathways.","correct":false,"explanation":"Confusing serotonin with dopamine misses the reward mechanism highlighted by the study. Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor activation was linked to increased dopamine activity."},{"text":"Dani and De Biasi (2001) linked nicotine addiction to opioid receptors and cortisol activity in reward pathways.","correct":false,"explanation":"Opioid receptors and cortisol are associated with other drug or stress mechanisms. The study linked nicotine addiction to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors and dopamine activity."}]},{"id":"40b136c2-b0aa-4773-a780-36e8ad951c92","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why is a reductionist biological explanation of nicotine addiction useful?","back":"It can guide drug treatments for craving or withdrawal.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It can guide drug treatments for craving or withdrawal.","correct":true,"explanation":"Identifying receptors, neurotransmitters and other biological mechanisms provides specific targets for medicines that can reduce nicotine cravings or relieve unpleasant withdrawal symptoms."},{"text":"It can establish one inevitable cause of every addiction.","correct":false,"explanation":"A biological explanation identifies contributing mechanisms but cannot prove one unavoidable cause for every case. Its practical value is guiding drug treatments for craving or withdrawal."},{"text":"It can replace psychological therapies for all people.","correct":false,"explanation":"Biological treatments do not work universally or make psychological support unnecessary. The explanation is useful because it can guide drug treatments for craving or withdrawal."},{"text":"It can show that social influences are irrelevant to addiction.","correct":false,"explanation":"Reductionism may neglect social influences, but it does not demonstrate that they are irrelevant. Its usefulness lies in guiding biological drug treatments for craving or withdrawal."}]},{"id":"17645a64-f8e5-4c3c-9689-fa34e61a3fe3","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"In operant conditioning, what type of reinforcement is drug-related pleasure?","back":"Positive reinforcement.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Positive reinforcement.","correct":true,"explanation":"Drug-related pleasure adds a desirable consequence after drug use, increasing the likelihood of using the drug again. Adding a rewarding outcome is positive reinforcement."},{"text":"Negative reinforcement.","correct":false,"explanation":"Negative reinforcement involves removing or avoiding something unpleasant, such as withdrawal. Drug-related pleasure instead adds a rewarding consequence, making it positive reinforcement."},{"text":"Positive punishment.","correct":false,"explanation":"Positive punishment adds an unpleasant consequence to reduce behaviour. Drug-related pleasure adds a desirable consequence and increases drug use, so it is positive reinforcement."},{"text":"Negative punishment.","correct":false,"explanation":"Negative punishment removes something desirable to reduce behaviour. Drug-related pleasure adds a desirable experience that encourages repetition, making it positive reinforcement."}]},{"id":"158f52cf-28b2-4b1b-bb15-faba96f548f8","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"In operant conditioning, what type of reinforcement is avoiding withdrawal?","back":"Negative reinforcement.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Negative reinforcement.","correct":true,"explanation":"Taking a drug can remove or prevent the unpleasant symptoms of withdrawal, increasing future drug use. Removing an aversive state is negative reinforcement."},{"text":"Positive reinforcement.","correct":false,"explanation":"Positive reinforcement increases behaviour by adding a rewarding consequence, such as pleasure. Avoiding withdrawal increases drug use by removing discomfort, so it is negative reinforcement."},{"text":"Positive punishment.","correct":false,"explanation":"Positive punishment adds an unpleasant consequence to reduce behaviour. Avoiding withdrawal removes an unpleasant state and increases drug use, which defines negative reinforcement."},{"text":"Negative punishment.","correct":false,"explanation":"Negative punishment removes a desirable consequence to reduce behaviour. Avoiding withdrawal removes an aversive condition and strengthens drug-taking, so it is negative reinforcement."}]},{"id":"c6df58c9-9e51-43c3-bdad-af922ead99e6","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"In classical conditioning, what can places or friends linked to drug effects trigger?","back":"Cravings.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Cravings.","correct":true,"explanation":"Through classical conditioning, people and places repeatedly associated with drug effects become conditioned stimuli that can produce cravings even when the drug is absent."},{"text":"Genetic inheritance.","correct":false,"explanation":"Environmental cues do not directly alter inherited DNA. Places or friends associated with drug effects become conditioned stimuli capable of triggering cravings."},{"text":"Drug metabolism.","correct":false,"explanation":"Drug metabolism is a physiological process largely carried out by organs such as the liver. Conditioned drug-related cues instead trigger psychological cravings."},{"text":"Positive reinforcement.","correct":false,"explanation":"Positive reinforcement refers to pleasure strengthening drug use, rather than a response elicited by environmental cues. Conditioned places or friends can trigger cravings."}]},{"id":"8cc13359-d84d-45de-9cb8-3062591cb119","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Biological explanations of drug misuse lean towards [ ], while learning explanations lean towards [ ].","back":"Biological explanations of drug misuse lean towards nature, while learning explanations lean towards nurture.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Biological explanations of drug misuse lean towards nature, while learning explanations lean towards nurture.","correct":true,"explanation":"Biological accounts emphasise inherited genes and physiological mechanisms, reflecting nature. Learning accounts emphasise experience and environmental conditioning, reflecting nurture."},{"text":"Biological explanations of drug misuse lean towards nurture, while learning explanations lean towards nature.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the usual classification. Biological mechanisms are associated with nature, whereas conditioning and experience in learning explanations are associated with nurture."},{"text":"Biological explanations of drug misuse lean towards nature, while learning explanations lean towards free will.","correct":false,"explanation":"Learning explanations emphasise environmental conditioning rather than unconstrained free will. Biological explanations lean towards nature, while learning explanations lean towards nurture."},{"text":"Biological explanations of drug misuse lean towards free will, while learning explanations lean towards nurture.","correct":false,"explanation":"Biological explanations generally stress genes, brain structures and neurochemistry, so they lean towards nature rather than free will. Learning explanations lean towards nurture."}]},{"id":"c6b77d62-3908-4300-8e42-a078c39ae68f","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why is an interactionist explanation of drug misuse often stronger?","back":"It combines biological vulnerability with environmental influences.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It combines biological vulnerability with environmental influences.","correct":true,"explanation":"An interactionist account is stronger because it explains how a person’s biological risk can be triggered, maintained or reduced by environmental factors such as cues, stress and peer influence."},{"text":"It replaces biological vulnerability with environmental influences.","correct":false,"explanation":"That treats environment as a substitute for biology, which is reductionist rather than interactionist. The stronger explanation combines biological vulnerability with environmental influences to show how both contribute."},{"text":"It combines moral weakness with environmental influences.","correct":false,"explanation":"Moral weakness is an outdated blame-based explanation, not a psychological vulnerability. The interactionist account is stronger because it combines biological vulnerability with environmental influences."},{"text":"It combines biological vulnerability with criminal responsibility.","correct":false,"explanation":"Criminal responsibility is a legal judgement, not the environmental part of an interactionist explanation. The correct account combines biological vulnerability with environmental influences such as cues or social context."}]},{"id":"5f86f6a4-c5e0-46f7-9015-15888020e02e","cardType":"basic","points":3,"front":"In the notes' best comparison, what does each explanation of drug misuse explain best?","back":"

Biological: physical dependence and withdrawal.
Learning: initiation, cue-triggered craving and relapse.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Biological: physical dependence and withdrawal.
Learning: initiation, cue-triggered craving and relapse.

","correct":true,"explanation":"Biological explanations are strongest for bodily dependence and withdrawal, while learning explanations best account for starting use and why cues can trigger craving and relapse."},{"text":"

Biological: initiation, cue-triggered craving and relapse.
Learning: physical dependence and withdrawal.

","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the strongest uses of the two explanations. Biological accounts best explain physical dependence and withdrawal, while learning accounts best explain initiation, cue-triggered craving and relapse."},{"text":"

Biological: peer modelling and social approval.
Learning: genes, receptors and withdrawal.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Peer modelling belongs with learning rather than biology, while genes and receptors are biological. The best comparison is biological for dependence and withdrawal, and learning for initiation, cue-triggered craving and relapse."},{"text":"

Biological: punishment, stigma and policing.
Learning: brain disease and detoxification.

","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses psychological explanations with social control and medical treatment. Biological explanations best fit physical dependence and withdrawal, while learning explanations best fit initiation, cue-triggered craving and relapse."}]},{"id":"e6824090-d3c6-40af-8de8-fa8d0496c8d2","cardType":"basic","points":3,"front":"Why is Olds and Milner's lever-pressing study a scientific example?","back":"

Observable lever-pressing.
Controlled brain stimulation.
Replicable procedure.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Observable lever-pressing.
Controlled brain stimulation.
Replicable procedure.

","correct":true,"explanation":"The study was scientific because it measured visible lever-pressing, manipulated brain stimulation under controlled conditions, and used a procedure that other researchers could repeat."},{"text":"

Observable private craving.
Controlled childhood memories.
Replicable interviews.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Private craving and childhood memories are not the key observable, controlled features of the study. The scientific strengths were observable lever-pressing, controlled brain stimulation and a replicable procedure."},{"text":"

Observable brain feelings.
Controlled self-reports.
Replicable life stories.

","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses scientific observation with subjective reports and narratives. Olds and Milner’s study was scientific through observable lever-pressing, controlled brain stimulation and a replicable procedure."},{"text":"

Observable drug histories.
Controlled social pressure.
Replicable case studies.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Drug histories, social pressure and case studies do not describe the laboratory features of Olds and Milner’s work. The correct example is observable lever-pressing, controlled brain stimulation and replication."}]},{"id":"83c5a893-c8e1-49df-a5eb-0b94f2ae5fed","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What can a narrow lab approach to drug misuse miss?","back":"Subjective experiences, such as shame, motivation, trauma or identity.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Subjective experiences, such as shame, motivation, trauma or identity.","correct":true,"explanation":"A narrow lab approach can measure behaviour and biology well, but it may overlook the person’s inner meanings, emotions and life experiences linked to drug misuse."},{"text":"Genetic mechanisms, such as genes, receptors, dopamine or inheritance.","correct":false,"explanation":"Genetic and neurochemical mechanisms are exactly the sort of variables a biological lab approach often investigates. What it may miss is subjective experiences, such as shame, motivation, trauma or identity."},{"text":"Observable behaviours, such as pressing, choosing, consuming or avoiding.","correct":false,"explanation":"Observable behaviour is usually central to lab research because it can be measured directly. The limitation is that subjective experiences, such as shame, motivation, trauma or identity, can be missed."},{"text":"Controlled variables, such as dosage, timing, setting or stimulation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Controlled variables are a strength of laboratory methods rather than what they tend to overlook. The key missing element is subjective experiences, such as shame, motivation, trauma or identity."}]},{"id":"152b6944-810c-4fa5-b643-b49c749a16f9","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Cross-cultural research can test whether drug-misuse explanations are [ ] or [ ].","back":"Cross-cultural research can test whether drug-misuse explanations are universal or culturally specific.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Cross-cultural research can test whether drug-misuse explanations are universal or culturally specific.","correct":true,"explanation":"Comparing cultures shows whether the same explanation applies across societies or whether it depends on local norms, values and social conditions."},{"text":"Cross-cultural research can test whether drug-misuse explanations are genetic or learned.","correct":false,"explanation":"Genetic versus learned is a nature-nurture distinction, not the main purpose of cross-cultural comparison. Cross-cultural research tests whether explanations are universal or culturally specific."},{"text":"Cross-cultural research can test whether drug-misuse explanations are valid or reliable.","correct":false,"explanation":"Validity and reliability are general research-method issues, not the specific contrast tested by comparing cultures. The intended distinction is universal versus culturally specific explanations."},{"text":"Cross-cultural research can test whether drug-misuse explanations are nomothetic or idiographic.","correct":false,"explanation":"Nomothetic versus idiographic concerns general laws versus individual uniqueness, which is a different debate. Cross-cultural research mainly tests whether explanations are universal or culturally specific."}]},{"id":"321cd071-73ee-484d-9115-7b2f9d15f4dc","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How has psychological understanding of drug misuse changed over time?","back":"From moral/criminal failing to brain, learning and social explanations.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"From moral/criminal failing to brain, learning and social explanations.","correct":true,"explanation":"Understanding has shifted away from simply blaming offenders toward explanations based on biological mechanisms, learned behaviours and the social context of drug misuse."},{"text":"From brain disease to moral, criminal and spiritual explanations.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the historical direction of the shift. Psychological understanding has moved from moral or criminal failing toward brain, learning and social explanations."},{"text":"From peer pressure to punishment, prison and deterrence explanations.","correct":false,"explanation":"Punishment and deterrence reflect a criminal-justice view rather than the modern psychological shift. The change is from moral or criminal failing to brain, learning and social explanations."},{"text":"From biological evidence to blame, choice and willpower explanations.","correct":false,"explanation":"That describes moving back toward moral blame, which is the opposite of the trend. The accepted change is from moral or criminal failing to brain, learning and social explanations."}]},{"id":"f4f869d9-0681-486c-9e62-7a05c8943207","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why can exaggerated anti-drug campaign messages backfire?","back":"They may reduce credibility or increase curiosity.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They may reduce credibility or increase curiosity.","correct":true,"explanation":"If warnings seem exaggerated, young people may distrust the source or become more interested in testing the claims for themselves, making the campaign counterproductive."},{"text":"They may increase accuracy or reduce experimentation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Those would be successful outcomes, not a backfire effect. Exaggerated messages can reduce credibility or increase curiosity because the audience doubts or reacts against them."},{"text":"They may reduce withdrawal or increase tolerance.","correct":false,"explanation":"Withdrawal and tolerance are biological consequences of drug use, not likely effects of campaign wording. The backfire risk is reduced credibility or increased curiosity."},{"text":"They may reduce stigma or increase help-seeking.","correct":false,"explanation":"Reducing stigma and increasing help-seeking would be positive public-health effects, not the usual danger of exaggeration. Exaggerated anti-drug messages may reduce credibility or increase curiosity."}]},{"id":"182d6d6c-4c0e-471f-8a2e-f21f4a43b3bf","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Treating drug misuse as criminal can increase [ ] and discourage [ ].","back":"Treating drug misuse as criminal can increase stigma and discourage help-seeking.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Treating drug misuse as criminal can increase stigma and discourage help-seeking.","correct":true,"explanation":"A criminal label can make people feel ashamed or judged, so they may avoid treatment and support even when they need help."},{"text":"Treating drug misuse as criminal can increase tolerance and discourage withdrawal.","correct":false,"explanation":"Tolerance and withdrawal are biological processes, not the social consequences of criminalising drug misuse. Criminal treatment can increase stigma and discourage help-seeking."},{"text":"Treating drug misuse as criminal can increase deterrence and discourage relapse.","correct":false,"explanation":"This states the intended legal aim, but the evaluation point is the harmful unintended effect. Criminalisation can increase stigma and discourage help-seeking."},{"text":"Treating drug misuse as criminal can increase punishment and discourage dependence.","correct":false,"explanation":"Punishment may increase, but it does not capture the psychological concern, and dependence is not simply discouraged by criminal labels. The key issue is stigma and reduced help-seeking."}]},{"id":"b4e3bc8c-aae7-46c7-ada0-6267dbbcf77c","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"When may confidentiality in drug-misuse research need to be broken?","back":"When there is serious risk of harm to the participant or others.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"When there is serious risk of harm to the participant or others.","correct":true,"explanation":"Confidentiality is normally protected, but safeguarding takes priority when disclosure is necessary to prevent a serious and credible threat to the participant or another person."},{"text":"When the participant admits to any illegal drug use during the study.","correct":false,"explanation":"Simply reporting illegal behaviour does not automatically justify disclosure. Confidentiality should be maintained unless the information indicates a serious risk of harm to the participant or others."},{"text":"When the participant chooses to withdraw from the research before it ends.","correct":false,"explanation":"Withdrawal ends the participant’s involvement but does not remove their right to confidentiality. Disclosure may be necessary only where there is serious risk of harm to them or others."},{"text":"When the researcher is asked by the participant’s family for information.","correct":false,"explanation":"A request from relatives does not override the participant’s confidentiality. Information may need to be disclosed only if there is serious risk of harm to the participant or others."}]}]}],"examCountdown":{"examDate":"2027-05-10","paperLabel":"Paper 1"},"heading":"Issues and debates","title":"Issues and debates Flashcards","topbar":{"backHref":"/as-level/psychology/edexcel/flashcards"},"topicSidebar":"$L38"}]}],"topicId":"67300fdc-e4e0-5a88-aca5-751ba15c67b9","walled":"$L39"}],"$L3a","$L3b"]