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become more frequent in populations over successive generations."},{"text":"Classical conditioning.","correct":false,"explanation":"Classical conditioning explains learned associations between stimuli, not evolutionary change across generations. The Darwinian process underpinning evolutionary explanations of behaviour is natural selection."},{"text":"Operant conditioning.","correct":false,"explanation":"Operant conditioning changes an individual’s behaviour through reinforcement or punishment during its lifetime. Natural selection instead changes the frequency of inherited traits across generations."},{"text":"Social learning.","correct":false,"explanation":"Social learning involves acquiring behaviour by observing others, rather than inheriting advantageous characteristics. Evolutionary explanations are underpinned by Darwin’s process of natural selection."}]},{"id":"c3f35d29-d9e5-44aa-a932-aee30d7c163b","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Evolutionary psychology suggests humans inherit [ ], not fixed behavioural programs.","back":"Evolutionary psychology suggests humans inherit predispositions, not fixed behavioural programs.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"predispositions","correct":true,"explanation":"Evolutionary psychology proposes that inherited tendencies make certain behaviours more likely in relevant environments, while still allowing learning, experience and culture to influence behaviour."},{"text":"learned behaviours","correct":false,"explanation":"Learning occurs through an individual’s experience and is not genetically inherited. Evolutionary psychologists argue that humans inherit predispositions that interact with environmental influences."},{"text":"fixed instincts","correct":false,"explanation":"This assumes behaviour is rigidly programmed and unaffected by experience. The correct term is predispositions, because inherited tendencies can be modified by environmental and cultural factors."},{"text":"cultural norms","correct":false,"explanation":"Cultural norms are transmitted socially rather than inherited biologically. Evolutionary psychology proposes inherited predispositions, which make certain behavioural responses more likely without determining them completely."}]},{"id":"256b6395-dbd6-45e1-88ef-75427b503735","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What do predators, food shortages, mate competition and rival groups act as?","back":"Selection pressures.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Selection pressures.","correct":true,"explanation":"These environmental challenges affect which individuals survive and reproduce. They therefore create selection pressures that favour inherited characteristics providing an advantage under those conditions."},{"text":"Genetic adaptations.","correct":false,"explanation":"Adaptations are advantageous inherited characteristics produced over generations, not the environmental challenges themselves. Predators, shortages and competition act as selection pressures."},{"text":"Inherited variations.","correct":false,"explanation":"Inherited variations are differences between individuals on which selection acts. Environmental challenges such as predation and competition are selection pressures that favour some variations over others."},{"text":"Reproductive outcomes.","correct":false,"explanation":"Reproductive outcomes are consequences of individuals possessing more or less advantageous traits. Predators, limited food and competition are selection pressures that influence those outcomes."}]},{"id":"da8796e4-3b0a-47dd-a73c-49eb24f36d5b","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"In natural selection, what happens to inherited traits that increase survival or reproductive success?","back":"They become more common in a population over generations.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They become more common in a population over generations.","correct":true,"explanation":"Individuals with advantageous inherited traits tend to leave more offspring, so copies of the relevant alleles increase and the traits become more common over generations."},{"text":"They become less common in a population over generations.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the direction of natural selection. Traits that increase survival or reproductive success are passed on more often, so they become more common in the population."},{"text":"They remain equally common in a population over generations.","correct":false,"explanation":"This overlooks differential reproductive success. Advantageous inherited traits are transmitted more frequently than alternatives, causing their population frequency to increase over successive generations."},{"text":"They become more common within an individual over generations.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses population evolution with change inside one organism. Natural selection makes advantageous inherited traits more common in a population across generations, not within an individual."}]},{"id":"398aac15-7a69-4ef7-abe7-0fbfc4ca15c1","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why is natural selection population change, not individual change?","back":"Inherited traits change in population frequency across generations.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Inherited traits change in population frequency across generations.","correct":true,"explanation":"Natural selection changes the proportion of individuals carrying particular inherited traits. Individual organisms do not evolve; the population’s genetic composition changes over successive generations."},{"text":"Inherited traits change in individual strength across generations.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses evolutionary change with an organism becoming stronger. Natural selection concerns changes in the population frequency of inherited traits across successive generations."},{"text":"Acquired traits change in population frequency across generations.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reflects the Lamarckian misconception that characteristics gained during life are inherited. Natural selection changes the population frequency of inherited traits across generations."},{"text":"Inherited traits change through individual experience across generations.","correct":false,"explanation":"Experience may alter behaviour within a lifetime but does not rewrite inherited traits for natural selection. Evolution occurs when inherited traits change in population frequency across generations."}]},{"id":"d4245916-7067-42d7-b3dd-876af7113ff2","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"For natural selection to act on defensive aggression, what must be true of the tendency?","back":"It must be partly inherited.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It must be partly inherited.","correct":true,"explanation":"Natural selection can act only when variation has a heritable component. If defensive aggression is partly inherited, individuals can pass the tendency to their offspring."},{"text":"It must be learned through experience.","correct":false,"explanation":"A tendency acquired only through personal experience is not genetically passed to offspring. Natural selection requires defensive aggression to be at least partly inherited."},{"text":"It must be present in every individual.","correct":false,"explanation":"Natural selection requires heritable variation rather than universal possession of a trait. Defensive aggression must be partly inherited, allowing advantageous variants to spread."},{"text":"It must be triggered by predators.","correct":false,"explanation":"A predator may provide the environmental trigger or selection pressure, but that alone does not permit evolution. The aggressive tendency must be partly inherited."}]},{"id":"f272170e-7418-4ec1-acb8-5eda744549a0","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"An adaptation is shaped by selection because it helped ancestors [ ] or [ ].","back":"An adaptation is shaped by selection because it helped ancestors survive or reproduce.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"An adaptation is shaped by selection because it helped ancestors survive or reproduce.","correct":true,"explanation":"Natural selection favours inherited characteristics that increase survival or reproductive success. Such characteristics spread because ancestral carriers contributed more genes to later generations."},{"text":"An adaptation is shaped by selection because it helped ancestors survive or learn.","correct":false,"explanation":"Learning alone is not the ultimate criterion for natural selection, although it may sometimes support fitness. An adaptation must have helped ancestors survive or reproduce."},{"text":"An adaptation is shaped by selection because it helped ancestors develop or reproduce.","correct":false,"explanation":"Development is a normal biological process and does not by itself explain why a trait was selected. Adaptations spread when they helped ancestors survive or reproduce."},{"text":"An adaptation is shaped by selection because it helped ancestors adapt or cooperate.","correct":false,"explanation":"This is circular and substitutes possible behaviours for evolutionary outcomes. Selection shapes adaptations when they increase ancestral survival or reproduction, whether or not cooperation is involved."}]},{"id":"f6677846-3488-4987-acd2-364eb6c7454a","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Reproductive fitness can be direct through offspring or indirect through [ ]; the indirect route is [ ].","back":"Reproductive fitness can be direct through offspring or indirect through helping close relatives; the indirect route is inclusive fitness.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Reproductive fitness can be direct through offspring or indirect through helping close relatives; the indirect route is inclusive fitness.","correct":true,"explanation":"Helping close genetic relatives survive and reproduce can spread shared genes without producing one’s own offspring. This indirect genetic contribution forms part of inclusive fitness."},{"text":"Reproductive fitness can be direct through offspring or indirect through helping close relatives; the indirect route is reciprocal altruism.","correct":false,"explanation":"Reciprocal altruism involves helping with an expectation of future repayment and need not involve relatives. Genetic benefits gained through helping close relatives contribute to inclusive fitness."},{"text":"Reproductive fitness can be direct through offspring or indirect through helping unrelated individuals; the indirect route is inclusive fitness.","correct":false,"explanation":"Inclusive fitness depends on promoting copies of shared genes through genetic relatives. Helping unrelated individuals does not provide this indirect genetic benefit unless another mechanism is involved."},{"text":"Reproductive fitness can be direct through offspring or indirect through helping close relatives; the indirect route is direct fitness.","correct":false,"explanation":"Direct fitness comes from producing one’s own offspring, not from relatives’ reproduction. Helping close relatives provides an indirect genetic benefit described as inclusive fitness."}]},{"id":"eff5fa09-7376-4712-b304-6050c59a412b","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why does adaptive not mean morally acceptable?","back":"Adaptive means useful for ancestral survival or reproduction, not justified today.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Adaptive means useful for ancestral survival or reproduction, not justified today.","correct":true,"explanation":"Natural selection favours traits that enhanced ancestral survival or reproductive success. It does not determine whether those traits are ethical, desirable or legally acceptable today."},{"text":"Adaptive means morally beneficial for society and therefore acceptable today.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses evolutionary usefulness with moral approval. The correct meaning is that adaptive traits aided ancestral survival or reproduction, regardless of whether they are justified today."},{"text":"Adaptive means useful for an individual’s current wellbeing or happiness today.","correct":false,"explanation":"This mistakes present usefulness for evolutionary adaptation. Adaptive refers to effects on ancestral survival or reproduction, not whether a behaviour benefits modern individuals."},{"text":"Adaptive means learned through social experience and approved by modern culture.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses adaptation with conscious social learning. An adaptive characteristic increased ancestral survival or reproduction, but that does not make it learned or morally acceptable."}]},{"id":"6d8fe7b8-fbe2-4985-bbf5-4d11d45ff053","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"A [ ] explanation asks what causes behaviour now; a [ ] explanation asks why it may have evolved.","back":"A proximate explanation asks what causes behaviour now; a ultimate explanation asks why it may have evolved.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A proximate explanation asks what causes behaviour now; a ultimate explanation asks why it may have evolved.","correct":true,"explanation":"Proximate explanations identify immediate mechanisms or triggers, whereas ultimate explanations consider the evolutionary function and selection pressures that may have shaped the behaviour."},{"text":"A ultimate explanation asks what causes behaviour now; a proximate explanation asks why it may have evolved.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the two levels of explanation. Proximate explanations address current causes and mechanisms, while ultimate explanations address the behaviour’s possible evolutionary function."},{"text":"A proximate explanation asks what causes behaviour now; a proximate explanation asks why it may have evolved.","correct":false,"explanation":"The first term is correct, but evolutionary origins require an ultimate explanation. Proximate explanations are limited to immediate causes such as hormones, cognition or environmental triggers."},{"text":"A ultimate explanation asks what causes behaviour now; a ultimate explanation asks why it may have evolved.","correct":false,"explanation":"The second term is correct, but immediate causes require a proximate explanation. Ultimate explanations instead examine why natural selection may have favoured the behaviour."}]},{"id":"8dfad19f-d5a0-4cba-a52a-bebac65d5092","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"In the public-insult example, why might status threats matter at the ultimate level?","back":"Low status could reduce access to resources, allies or mates.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Low status could reduce access to resources, allies or mates.","correct":true,"explanation":"In ancestral environments, status could influence access to scarce resources, cooperative partners and reproductive opportunities. Status threats could therefore affect survival and reproductive success."},{"text":"Low status could guarantee access to resources, allies or mates.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the predicted ancestral relationship. Low status would generally restrict, not guarantee, access to resources, allies or mates, potentially reducing reproductive success."},{"text":"Low status could reduce feelings of stress, anger or embarrassment.","correct":false,"explanation":"An ultimate explanation concerns ancestral survival and reproduction, not simply modern emotional comfort. Low status mattered because it could reduce access to resources, allies or mates."},{"text":"Low status could remove competition for resources, allies or mates.","correct":false,"explanation":"Avoiding all competition would not explain aggression following a status threat. Ancestrally, low status could limit access to resources, allies or mates, creating pressure to defend status."}]},{"id":"2d2642e4-b253-4008-be05-6d83c87228bf","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Evolutionary explanations view aggression as a [ ], not constant violence.","back":"Evolutionary explanations view aggression as a conditional strategy, not constant violence.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"conditional strategy","correct":true,"explanation":"Aggression is expected only under circumstances in which its likely fitness benefits exceed its risks and costs, making it a conditional rather than constantly expressed strategy."},{"text":"fixed instinct","correct":false,"explanation":"Calling aggression fixed implies that it occurs regardless of circumstances. Evolutionary accounts instead describe a conditional strategy, activated when its expected benefits outweigh its costs."},{"text":"constant drive","correct":false,"explanation":"A constant drive would predict aggression across situations, despite risks such as injury and retaliation. Evolutionary explanations instead treat aggression as a conditional strategy."},{"text":"learned response","correct":false,"explanation":"Learning can influence aggression, but this does not capture the evolutionary claim. The behaviour is viewed as a conditional strategy shaped by context-sensitive costs and benefits."}]},{"id":"a9ae9de4-20d3-4a3e-bec5-c6df9d727be7","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why does an evolutionary account not predict constant aggression?","back":"

Aggression is costly: injury, retaliation, punishment or exclusion.
It is expected when benefits outweigh costs.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Aggression is costly: injury, retaliation, punishment or exclusion.
It is expected when benefits outweigh costs.

","correct":true,"explanation":"Aggression carries substantial fitness costs, including injury and retaliation. Evolutionary accounts therefore predict it mainly where potential survival or reproductive benefits exceed those costs."},{"text":"

Aggression is cost-free: it brings no injury, retaliation, punishment or exclusion.
It is expected whenever a rival is present.

","correct":false,"explanation":"This ignores the serious risks associated with aggression and predicts indiscriminate violence. The evolutionary account expects aggression only when likely benefits outweigh injury, retaliation and other costs."},{"text":"

Aggression is unavoidable: injury, retaliation, punishment or exclusion.
It is expected when costs outweigh benefits.

","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses cost-benefit reasoning. Natural selection would not generally favour aggression when its costs exceed its benefits, especially given risks of injury, retaliation, punishment and exclusion."},{"text":"

Aggression is always adaptive: it guarantees survival, status, acceptance or protection.
It is expected in every social encounter.

","correct":false,"explanation":"This treats adaptive behaviour as universally beneficial and overlooks context. Aggression is costly, so evolutionary theory predicts it when potential benefits outweigh the likely costs."}]},{"id":"b6c93e6c-8405-49dd-a191-eee2d9f0d6a7","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What adaptive problem could aggression solve in resource defence?","back":"Deterring theft or invasion of valuable resources.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Deterring theft or invasion of valuable resources.","correct":true,"explanation":"Aggression could protect food, territory or possessions by making attempted theft or invasion costly. Successful deterrence would preserve resources important for survival and reproduction."},{"text":"Encouraging rivals to share their valuable resources.","correct":false,"explanation":"Resource defence concerns preventing loss, not encouraging sharing. Aggression could have solved this adaptive problem by deterring theft or invasion of valuable resources."},{"text":"Reducing the usefulness of their valuable resources.","correct":false,"explanation":"Aggression would not make defended resources worthless; their value is why defence could be adaptive. Its relevant function was deterring theft or invasion of valuable resources."},{"text":"Surrendering ownership of their valuable resources.","correct":false,"explanation":"Abandoning resources avoids conflict but does not explain the adaptive function of aggression. Aggression could instead deter theft or invasion and preserve valuable resources."}]},{"id":"ff620a3b-10b9-4401-b149-5cd18ff1e3de","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How could protecting relatives through aggression increase inclusive fitness?","back":"Relatives share genes, so protection preserves shared genes.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Relatives share genes, so protection preserves shared genes.","correct":true,"explanation":"Genetic relatives carry some of the same alleles. Protecting their survival and reproduction can therefore increase inclusive fitness by helping preserve shared genes."},{"text":"Relatives have identical genes, so protection preserves all genes.","correct":false,"explanation":"Relatives do not possess identical genes, except identical twins. The inclusive-fitness explanation depends on relatives sharing some genes, which protection can help preserve."},{"text":"Relatives share no genes, so protection preserves individual genes.","correct":false,"explanation":"This denies the genetic relatedness underlying kin selection. Relatives share genes, so protecting them can preserve shared genes and thereby increase inclusive fitness."},{"text":"Relatives share environments, so protection preserves learned behaviours.","correct":false,"explanation":"Shared environments may influence behaviour but do not explain inclusive fitness. Protection benefits inclusive fitness because relatives share genes, allowing shared genes to be preserved."}]},{"id":"59ba451d-70b1-4b49-8ef7-5010bf45d9fa","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What status-related function may aggression have served in ancestral groups?","back":"Deterring rivals or avoiding exploitation.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Deterring rivals or avoiding exploitation.","correct":true,"explanation":"Aggression could signal that challenges would be costly, discouraging rivals and preventing others from exploiting the individual. This could help maintain advantageous social status."},{"text":"Deterring allies or encouraging exploitation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Aggression towards allies would risk losing cooperation rather than maintaining status. The proposed ancestral function is to deter rivals or prevent exploitation by others."},{"text":"Attracting rivals or inviting exploitation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Attracting rivals would increase competition and status threats rather than solve them. Aggression may instead have served to deter rivals or prevent exploitation."},{"text":"Submitting to rivals or accepting exploitation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Submitting to rivals would generally concede rather than defend status. The evolutionary account proposes that aggression could deter rivals or help the individual avoid exploitation."}]},{"id":"20a5fae2-acf6-43c6-b68f-b996d3bea375","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"[ ] favours traits that increase mating success.","back":"Sexual selection favours traits that increase mating success.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Sexual selection","correct":true,"explanation":"Sexual selection favours characteristics that improve an individual’s ability to attract mates or defeat reproductive rivals, thereby increasing mating success."},{"text":"Natural selection","correct":false,"explanation":"Natural selection broadly favours traits that improve survival and reproductive fitness. The specific process favouring traits because they increase mating success is sexual selection."},{"text":"Kin selection","correct":false,"explanation":"Kin selection favours behaviour that helps genetic relatives reproduce, increasing inclusive fitness. Sexual selection specifically favours traits that improve mating success."},{"text":"Artificial selection","correct":false,"explanation":"Artificial selection occurs when humans deliberately choose which organisms reproduce. Sexual selection is the evolutionary process that favours traits increasing mating success."}]},{"id":"e38e5c13-5121-442c-ad62-2dbe035b81b3","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"According to Buss et al. (1992), why may sexual jealousy have evolved?","back":"To support mate retention against infidelity or partner loss.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"To support mate retention against infidelity or partner loss.","correct":true,"explanation":"Buss et al. argued that sexual jealousy could motivate mate-retention behaviours, reducing the reproductive costs associated with a partner’s infidelity or departure."},{"text":"To support group cooperation against predators or food shortages.","correct":false,"explanation":"Group cooperation may offer survival benefits, but it does not explain sexual jealousy. Buss et al. linked jealousy to mate retention against infidelity or partner loss."},{"text":"To support parental investment against illness or infant mortality.","correct":false,"explanation":"Parental investment concerns resources devoted to offspring rather than reactions to a partner’s infidelity. Buss et al. proposed that jealousy evolved to support mate retention."},{"text":"To support kin selection against unrelated group members.","correct":false,"explanation":"Kin selection concerns helping genetic relatives and does not directly account for sexual jealousy. The proposed function of jealousy is mate retention against infidelity or partner loss."}]},{"id":"d6c408ec-1a4a-4123-8643-8b8b684f8134","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What aggression pattern did Daly and Wilson (1988) use as evidence?","back":"Homicides often involve young males, rivalry and jealousy.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Homicides often involve young males, rivalry and jealousy.","correct":true,"explanation":"Daly and Wilson identified the frequent involvement of young men, status rivalry and sexual jealousy in homicides, supporting an evolutionary account of male aggression."},{"text":"Homicides often involve older females, cooperation and empathy.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the demographic and motivational pattern reported in the research. Daly and Wilson emphasised young males and homicides associated with rivalry and jealousy."},{"text":"Homicides often involve young children, imitation and obedience.","correct":false,"explanation":"Imitation and obedience are social-learning concepts, not the homicide pattern Daly and Wilson highlighted. Their evidence concerned young males, rivalry and jealousy."},{"text":"Homicides often involve older males, conformity and altruism.","correct":false,"explanation":"Conformity and altruism do not describe the aggressive pattern identified by Daly and Wilson. They focused on homicides involving young males, rivalry and jealousy."}]},{"id":"babe717d-41cc-4590-a0eb-7158a03c70cb","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why can evolutionary explanations become just-so stories?","back":"Ancestral environments are unobservable, making accounts hard to falsify.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Ancestral environments are unobservable, making accounts hard to falsify.","correct":true,"explanation":"Conditions in ancestral environments cannot be observed directly, so researchers may construct plausible adaptive explanations that cannot be decisively tested or disproved."},{"text":"Ancestral environments are well documented, making accounts easy to confirm.","correct":false,"explanation":"Ancestral environments are not comprehensively documented or directly observable. This limited evidence makes evolutionary accounts hard to falsify and vulnerable to becoming just-so stories."},{"text":"Modern behaviours are unchanging, making accounts simple to replicate.","correct":false,"explanation":"Behaviour varies across individuals, situations and cultures rather than remaining unchanging. Just-so stories arise because ancestral conditions are unobservable, making proposed explanations hard to falsify."},{"text":"Genetic influences are absent, making accounts purely cultural.","correct":false,"explanation":"Evolutionary explanations specifically propose inherited predispositions, so they do not assume genetic influences are absent. Their just-so-story problem comes from being difficult to falsify."}]},{"id":"96bbb53b-b7e1-4d66-8ef6-a98b79d200cb","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why is reductionism a weakness of evolutionary aggression explanations?","back":"Aggression is also shaped by learning, culture and social factors.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Aggression is also shaped by learning, culture and social factors.","correct":true,"explanation":"An exclusively evolutionary account reduces aggression to inherited adaptations while neglecting learned behaviour, cultural norms and social circumstances that also influence aggression."},{"text":"Aggression is entirely determined by genes and inherited instincts.","correct":false,"explanation":"This states the reductionist assumption rather than explaining its weakness. The weakness is that aggression is also influenced by learning, culture and social factors."},{"text":"Aggression cannot be influenced by experience, norms or situations.","correct":false,"explanation":"Evidence shows that experience, social norms and situations can affect aggression. Ignoring these influences is precisely why purely evolutionary explanations are criticised as reductionist."},{"text":"Aggression is measured using objective and reliable methods.","correct":false,"explanation":"Objectivity and reliability concern research methodology, not reductionism. Reductionism is a weakness because aggression is also shaped by learning, culture and social factors."}]},{"id":"d1dfe0c4-67d3-4a95-95dd-616e704b8cb1","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Large differences in aggression across societies suggest [ ] and [ ] shape evolved predispositions.","back":"Large differences in aggression across societies suggest culture and environment shape evolved predispositions.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Large differences in aggression across societies suggest culture and environment shape evolved predispositions.","correct":true,"explanation":"Cross-cultural variation shows that aggression is not produced rigidly by evolved mechanisms. Cultural norms and environmental conditions shape how inherited predispositions are expressed."},{"text":"Large differences in aggression across societies suggest biology and environment shape evolved predispositions.","correct":false,"explanation":"Environmental influence is relevant, but variation between societies particularly demonstrates the role of culture rather than biology. Culture and environment shape the expression of evolved predispositions."},{"text":"Large differences in aggression across societies suggest culture and inheritance shape evolved predispositions.","correct":false,"explanation":"Culture is relevant, but inheritance cannot readily explain large differences between societies. Such variation indicates that culture and environment shape evolved predispositions."},{"text":"Large differences in aggression across societies suggest genes and hormones shape evolved predispositions.","correct":false,"explanation":"Genes and hormones are biological influences, but they do not explain why aggression varies greatly across societies. This variation points to culture and environment."}]},{"id":"9d736d1b-fa9e-4d26-8496-ce82c536bc61","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What ethical risk arises if evolutionary explanations of aggression are presented badly?","back":"They may excuse violence or reinforce gender stereotypes.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They may excuse violence or reinforce gender stereotypes.","correct":true,"explanation":"Presenting aggression as biologically inevitable can reduce perceived personal responsibility for violence and encourage stereotypes that portray men as naturally and unavoidably aggressive."},{"text":"They may breach confidentiality or reveal participants’ identities.","correct":false,"explanation":"Confidentiality is a concern in conducting research with identifiable participants, not the main risk of presenting evolutionary explanations badly. The danger is excusing violence or reinforcing gender stereotypes."},{"text":"They may cause physical harm or expose participants to danger.","correct":false,"explanation":"Physical harm is a risk associated with unsafe research procedures, not with how evolutionary explanations are communicated. Poor presentation may excuse violence or reinforce gender stereotypes."},{"text":"They may invalidate consent or prevent participants withdrawing.","correct":false,"explanation":"Consent and withdrawal are procedural research ethics issues. The communication risk is that deterministic evolutionary claims may excuse violence or reinforce harmful gender stereotypes."}]},{"id":"5b46c3c7-9cd8-41ae-81d3-aca942a0b96a","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What violence-reduction application follows from understanding status threat and rivalry?","back":"Use de-escalation, conflict mediation or reduced humiliation.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Use de-escalation, conflict mediation or reduced humiliation.","correct":true,"explanation":"If aggression is triggered by status threats and rivalry, de-escalation, mediation and avoiding humiliation can reduce perceived challenges and prevent confrontations from intensifying."},{"text":"Use public confrontation, competitive ranking or increased humiliation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Public confrontation and humiliation can intensify perceived status threats and rivalry, increasing aggression. De-escalation, conflict mediation and reduced humiliation are more appropriate."},{"text":"Use genetic screening, drug treatment or hormone suppression.","correct":false,"explanation":"This wrongly treats aggression as a fixed biological defect and does not address immediate status threats. De-escalation, mediation and reduced humiliation target the proposed triggers directly."},{"text":"Use harsh punishment, public shaming or forced competition.","correct":false,"explanation":"Public shaming and competition may heighten humiliation and rivalry, potentially escalating violence. Understanding status threat instead supports de-escalation, conflict mediation and reduced humiliation."}]}]}],"examCountdown":{"examDate":"2027-05-10","paperLabel":"Paper 1"},"heading":"Evolution and natural selection","title":"Evolution and natural selection Flashcards","topbar":{"backHref":"/as-level/psychology/edexcel/flashcards"},"topicSidebar":"$L38"}]}],"topicId":"3d4b2f7a-798b-5906-b71d-82fa07c5b7a3","walled":"$L39"}],"$L3a","$L3b"]