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biology.","correct":true,"explanation":"Environmental effects arise from external influences such as upbringing, culture, education and social experiences, rather than from genes or other inherited biological characteristics."},{"text":"It comes from genes and inherited characteristics, not social experiences.","correct":false,"explanation":"This describes a genetic or biological effect, which is the nature side of development. An environmental effect comes from surroundings and experiences rather than inherited biology."},{"text":"It comes from biological maturation and hormones, not learned behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"Maturation and hormones are biological influences, even though they interact with experience. Environmental effects specifically originate in surroundings, learning and experiences rather than inherited biology."},{"text":"It comes from natural instincts and reflexes, not cultural learning.","correct":false,"explanation":"Instincts and reflexes are generally treated as innate biological influences. Environmental effects instead develop through surroundings and experiences, including upbringing, education and cultural learning."}]},{"id":"985ba5e0-fa87-4265-b814-4b4a72565f37","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"In this topic, gender roles and cultural norms are treated as [ ] because they are learned through [ ].","back":"In this topic, gender roles and cultural norms are treated as environmental because they are learned through socialisation.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"In this topic, gender roles and cultural norms are treated as environmental because they are learned through socialisation.","correct":true,"explanation":"Gender roles and cultural norms are acquired through interaction with families, peers, schools and media. They are therefore environmental influences learned through socialisation."},{"text":"In this topic, gender roles and cultural norms are treated as biological because they are learned through inheritance.","correct":false,"explanation":"Inheritance transmits biological characteristics, not learned roles and norms. Gender roles and cultural norms are treated as environmental because they are acquired through socialisation."},{"text":"In this topic, gender roles and cultural norms are treated as environmental because they are learned through maturation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Maturation refers to biologically programmed development, not the learning of social expectations. These influences are environmental because they are learned through socialisation."},{"text":"In this topic, gender roles and cultural norms are treated as biological because they are learned through socialisation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Socialisation is an environmental process, so calling its outcomes biological confuses learned influences with inherited ones. Gender roles and cultural norms are treated as environmental."}]},{"id":"a81e9aed-a677-4122-ac08-30bb9c62966c","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How is prejudice different from discrimination?","back":"

Prejudice: negative attitude towards a group.
Discrimination: behaviour treating groups differently.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Prejudice: negative attitude towards a group.
Discrimination: behaviour treating groups differently.

","correct":true,"explanation":"Prejudice concerns beliefs, feelings or attitudes about a social group, whereas discrimination occurs when those attitudes are expressed through unequal or unfair behaviour."},{"text":"

Prejudice: behaviour treating groups differently.
Discrimination: negative attitude towards a group.

","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the two concepts. Prejudice is a negative attitude towards a group, while discrimination is behaviour that treats people differently because of group membership."},{"text":"

Prejudice: fair judgement of an individual.
Discrimination: equal treatment of all groups.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Neither concept refers to fairness or equality. Prejudice is a negative group-based attitude, and discrimination is behaviour involving different treatment of groups."},{"text":"

Prejudice: behaviour towards one individual.
Discrimination: beliefs unrelated to social groups.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Both concepts are connected to social group membership. Prejudice is a negative attitude towards a group, whereas discrimination is behaviour that treats groups differently."}]},{"id":"4e50dc85-c399-410c-b5dd-f4efd50acf25","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Why should gender not be treated as biological sex in this topic?","back":"Gender means socially learned roles, expectations and identities.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Gender means socially learned roles, expectations and identities.","correct":true,"explanation":"In this topic, gender refers to roles, expectations and identities shaped through culture and socialisation, while biological sex concerns physical and biological characteristics."},{"text":"Gender means inherited chromosomes, hormones and reproductive anatomy.","correct":false,"explanation":"Chromosomes, hormones and reproductive anatomy describe biological sex rather than gender. Gender refers to socially learned roles, expectations and identities."},{"text":"Gender means fixed biological differences present from birth.","correct":false,"explanation":"This treats gender as innate and unchangeable, confusing it with biological sex. Here, gender means roles, expectations and identities learned through social experience."},{"text":"Gender means physical traits determined entirely by genetic inheritance.","correct":false,"explanation":"Genetically determined physical traits relate to biological sex, not the topic’s social definition of gender. Gender concerns learned roles, expectations and identities."}]},{"id":"0a85ed5c-e825-408f-aa2a-5387f5d50b46","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"A norm is an [ ] about behaviour seen as [ ].","back":"A norm is an unwritten rule about behaviour seen as acceptable.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A norm is an unwritten rule about behaviour seen as acceptable.","correct":true,"explanation":"A norm is a shared, usually unwritten social rule indicating which behaviours a group or culture regards as acceptable and expected."},{"text":"A norm is a written law about behaviour seen as illegal.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses social norms with formal laws. A norm is an unwritten rule about behaviour regarded as acceptable, rather than a legally enforced rule."},{"text":"A norm is an unwritten rule about behaviour seen as unacceptable.","correct":false,"explanation":"The final relationship has been reversed. A norm identifies behaviour regarded as acceptable or expected within a group, although violating it may be seen as unacceptable."},{"text":"A norm is a personal preference about behaviour seen as acceptable.","correct":false,"explanation":"A personal preference belongs to an individual, whereas a norm is socially shared. It is an unwritten rule about behaviour considered acceptable by a group."}]},{"id":"b14b789d-011d-4726-85a7-aac2c0f3ef6b","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How can social learning theory explain obedience?","back":"Observed obedience is copied if role models are rewarded.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Observed obedience is copied if role models are rewarded.","correct":true,"explanation":"Social learning theory predicts imitation of observed behaviour, especially when a role model receives rewards. The observer learns that obedience is likely to have positive consequences."},{"text":"Observed obedience is inherited if role models are rewarded.","correct":false,"explanation":"Rewarded behaviour may be learned and copied, but it cannot be inherited through observation. Social learning theory explains obedience through imitation and vicarious reinforcement."},{"text":"Observed obedience is copied if role models are punished.","correct":false,"explanation":"Punishment usually provides vicarious evidence that a behaviour should be avoided, not copied. Observed obedience is more likely to be imitated when role models are rewarded."},{"text":"Observed obedience is ignored if role models are rewarded.","correct":false,"explanation":"A reward makes the observed behaviour more attractive to imitate, rather than encouraging observers to ignore it. Social learning theory predicts that rewarded obedience will be copied."}]},{"id":"177f826d-203d-4c2f-ab01-431ba38b9953","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Learning by seeing another person rewarded is called [ ].","back":"Learning by seeing another person rewarded is called vicarious reinforcement.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"vicarious reinforcement","correct":true,"explanation":"Vicarious reinforcement occurs when an observer sees someone else rewarded for a behaviour and consequently becomes more likely to imitate that behaviour."},{"text":"positive reinforcement","correct":false,"explanation":"Positive reinforcement occurs when the learner personally receives a desirable consequence. Seeing another person receive the reward is specifically called vicarious reinforcement."},{"text":"classical conditioning","correct":false,"explanation":"Classical conditioning involves learning through associations between stimuli, not observing another person’s reward. Learning from someone else’s rewarded behaviour is vicarious reinforcement."},{"text":"negative reinforcement","correct":false,"explanation":"Negative reinforcement strengthens behaviour by removing an unpleasant stimulus for the learner. Observing another person being rewarded instead describes vicarious reinforcement."}]},{"id":"48015f94-1581-4c44-83ac-6f90045b1fad","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"How might girls be socialised in some environments to increase obedience?","back":"They may be rewarded for being polite, caring and compliant.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They may be rewarded for being polite, caring and compliant.","correct":true,"explanation":"Rewards make socially approved behaviours more likely to be repeated. Reinforcing politeness, caring and compliance can therefore socialise girls into behaving more obediently."},{"text":"They may be rewarded for being assertive, independent and defiant.","correct":false,"explanation":"Rewarding assertiveness, independence and defiance would encourage resistance rather than obedience. Increased obedience is better explained by rewarding polite, caring and compliant behaviour."},{"text":"They may be punished for being polite, caring and compliant.","correct":false,"explanation":"Punishment would discourage these compliant behaviours rather than strengthen them. Social learning theory predicts greater obedience when polite, caring and compliant behaviour is rewarded."},{"text":"They may be rewarded for being dominant, rebellious and non-compliant.","correct":false,"explanation":"These rewards would reinforce challenges to authority and reduce compliance. Obedience is more likely to increase when girls are rewarded for polite, caring and compliant behaviour."}]},{"id":"e698b5e8-4576-4f7c-bc02-e43bf972e1f4","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What limits Milgram’s original 1963 study as evidence about gender and obedience?","back":"It used only male participants.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It used only male participants.","correct":true,"explanation":"Because the original sample contained only men, the findings cannot show whether women would have responded similarly or whether obedience differed according to gender."},{"text":"It used only female participants.","correct":false,"explanation":"Confusing the original sample with Milgram’s later female sample reverses the limitation. The 1963 study used only male participants, preventing direct gender comparisons."},{"text":"It used only mixed-gender groups.","correct":false,"explanation":"The participants did not complete the original experiment in mixed-gender groups. Milgram recruited only men, so the study could not directly compare male and female obedience."},{"text":"It used only child participants.","correct":false,"explanation":"Milgram studied adult men rather than children. The gender limitation is that only male participants were included, making generalisation to women uncertain."}]},{"id":"8e21220b-d80c-4987-ae11-299abd935c06","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What did Milgram’s later female sample suggest about gender and obedience?","back":"Female obedience was similar to the male sample.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Female obedience was similar to the male sample.","correct":true,"explanation":"Milgram’s later study found a comparable obedience rate among women, suggesting that gender did not substantially affect obedience under those experimental conditions."},{"text":"Female obedience was higher than the male sample.","correct":false,"explanation":"It is tempting to infer greater obedience from stereotypes about female passivity, but Milgram found female obedience was similar to that of the male sample."},{"text":"Female obedience was lower than the male sample.","correct":false,"explanation":"The later female sample did not show reduced obedience. Its obedience rate was similar to the male sample, although women often displayed greater visible tension."},{"text":"Female obedience was opposite to the male sample.","correct":false,"explanation":"The female results did not reverse the pattern found among men. Women showed a similar level of obedience, so the findings suggested little gender difference."}]},{"id":"a239c8b6-334c-41b7-a5c3-75cc91be86d3","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What did Burger (2009) find about gender differences in obedience?","back":"There was no clear gender difference.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"There was no clear gender difference.","correct":true,"explanation":"Burger found that men and women showed broadly similar obedience, providing no clear evidence that gender reliably determined responses to the authority figure."},{"text":"There was greater obedience among men.","correct":false,"explanation":"Stereotypes about male respect for hierarchy may make this tempting, but Burger found no clear gender difference in obedience between male and female participants."},{"text":"There was greater obedience among women.","correct":false,"explanation":"Gender-role stereotypes may suggest women are more compliant, but Burger’s results did not establish greater female obedience. There was no clear gender difference."},{"text":"There was complete obedience among women.","correct":false,"explanation":"Burger did not find that all women obeyed, and this exaggerates the results. The study instead found no clear gender difference in obedience."}]},{"id":"b6bb2c8b-d0eb-42a4-820b-3fc56d4096b7","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why is gender socialisation a flexible explanation of obedience?","back":"It explains changes as gender roles shift over time.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It explains changes as gender roles shift over time.","correct":true,"explanation":"Socialisation is historically variable, so predicted obedience patterns can change as expectations for masculine and feminine behaviour alter across generations and societies."},{"text":"It explains changes as biological sex remains stable.","correct":false,"explanation":"A fixed biological account would not readily explain changing patterns over time. Gender socialisation is flexible because gender roles and learned expectations can shift."},{"text":"It explains obedience as genetically determined at birth.","correct":false,"explanation":"Genetic determination implies a fixed biological explanation rather than a flexible social one. Gender socialisation explains change through shifting gender roles and expectations."},{"text":"It explains behaviour through unchanging gender roles over time.","correct":false,"explanation":"Treating roles as unchanging removes the explanation’s flexibility. Gender socialisation can account for historical variation because gender roles shift over time."}]},{"id":"6322291a-db8e-4be3-875a-b942281f501b","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why can gender explanations of obedience become too simplistic?","back":"They may reduce gender to male versus female.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They may reduce gender to male versus female.","correct":true,"explanation":"A simple binary comparison overlooks variation within gender groups, non-binary identities and the influence of intersecting social factors on obedience."},{"text":"They may reduce gender to biology versus culture.","correct":false,"explanation":"Biology and culture describe competing sources of influence rather than the simplistic gender categories at issue. The criticism is reducing gender to male versus female."},{"text":"They may reduce obedience to authority versus rebellion.","correct":false,"explanation":"This simplifies behavioural responses rather than gender itself. Gender explanations become reductive when they treat gender only as a male-versus-female binary."},{"text":"They may reduce culture to individualist versus collectivist.","correct":false,"explanation":"That criticism concerns broad cultural categories, not the oversimplification of gender. Gender explanations may wrongly reduce gender to male versus female."}]},{"id":"6f137e86-e832-49e5-8fd1-43713470b67c","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Collectivist cultures tend to emphasise [ ] and [ ].","back":"Collectivist cultures tend to emphasise group harmony and social duties.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Collectivist cultures tend to emphasise group harmony and social duties.","correct":true,"explanation":"Collectivist values prioritise maintaining cohesive relationships and fulfilling obligations to the wider group, rather than placing individual preferences above collective needs."},{"text":"Collectivist cultures tend to emphasise personal freedom and individual goals.","correct":false,"explanation":"Personal autonomy and individual achievement are more characteristic of individualist cultures. Collectivist cultures instead emphasise group harmony and social duties."},{"text":"Collectivist cultures tend to emphasise group competition and personal rewards.","correct":false,"explanation":"Competition within the group and personal rewards conflict with the collectivist focus on cooperation. Collectivist cultures generally emphasise group harmony and social duties."},{"text":"Collectivist cultures tend to emphasise group harmony and personal independence.","correct":false,"explanation":"Group harmony fits collectivism, but personal independence is associated with individualism. The paired collectivist values are group harmony and social duties."}]},{"id":"85106f84-a6f9-4cbf-a441-27ff20211a1b","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Individualist cultures tend to emphasise [ ].","back":"Individualist cultures tend to emphasise personal independence.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"personal independence","correct":true,"explanation":"Individualist cultures give greater priority to autonomy, self-direction and personal choice, so personal independence is a central value within these cultures."},{"text":"group harmony","correct":false,"explanation":"Group harmony is mainly associated with collectivist cultures, where cohesion takes priority. Individualist cultures instead tend to emphasise personal independence."},{"text":"social duties","correct":false,"explanation":"Social duties reflect obligations to the group and are characteristic of collectivism. Individualist cultures place greater emphasis on personal independence."},{"text":"collective responsibility","correct":false,"explanation":"Collective responsibility prioritises shared group obligations rather than individual autonomy. Individualist cultures are more likely to emphasise personal independence."}]},{"id":"02beba5f-9800-4f4d-9be3-37371db4b899","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What did Bond and Smith’s (1996) meta-analysis find about culture?","back":"Conformity tended to be higher in collectivist cultures.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Conformity tended to be higher in collectivist cultures.","correct":true,"explanation":"Bond and Smith found greater conformity in collectivist settings, where maintaining group harmony and responding to group expectations are more strongly valued."},{"text":"Conformity tended to be higher in individualist cultures.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the cultural pattern reported by Bond and Smith. Conformity tended to be higher in collectivist cultures, which place greater value on group cohesion."},{"text":"Conformity tended to be identical across all cultures.","correct":false,"explanation":"The meta-analysis found meaningful cultural variation rather than universal equality. Conformity was generally higher in collectivist cultures than in individualist cultures."},{"text":"Conformity tended to be lower in collectivist cultures.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the observed direction of the relationship. Collectivist values support group harmony, and conformity tended to be higher in collectivist cultures."}]},{"id":"a00dd341-9103-4f76-8f48-93e137bf272a","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why is Bond and Smith (1996) only indirect evidence for obedience?","back":"It studied Asch-style conformity, not obedience.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It studied Asch-style conformity, not obedience.","correct":true,"explanation":"Bond and Smith reviewed conformity research based on Asch’s paradigm. Conformity and obedience both involve social influence, but only obedience involves responding to an authority’s direct command."},{"text":"It studied Milgram-style obedience, not conformity.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the distinction: Bond and Smith examined Asch-style conformity studies, not Milgram-style obedience. Their findings therefore provide only indirect evidence about cultural differences in obedience."},{"text":"It studied Sherif-style intergroup conflict, not obedience.","correct":false,"explanation":"Sherif’s research concerned competition and cooperation between groups, whereas Bond and Smith reviewed Asch-style conformity studies. This makes their evidence for cultural differences in obedience indirect."},{"text":"It studied Tajfel-style in-group favouritism, not obedience.","correct":false,"explanation":"Tajfel investigated social categorisation and in-group favouritism, but Bond and Smith reviewed Asch-style conformity. Because conformity is distinct from obedience, their evidence is only indirect."}]},{"id":"bfad7732-8218-4120-b6a5-cc0d65153f79","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What problem affects cross-cultural Milgram-style obedience comparisons?","back":"Studies differed in procedure, time period and sample.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Studies differed in procedure, time period and sample.","correct":true,"explanation":"Differences in methods, historical contexts and participant samples create confounding variables. Any variation in obedience might therefore reflect these factors rather than genuine cultural differences."},{"text":"Studies differed in obedience level, conclusion and interpretation.","correct":false,"explanation":"These are possible outcomes of the studies rather than methodological confounds. The comparison is weakened because procedures, time periods and samples differed across cultures."},{"text":"Studies differed in authority status, prejudice and conformity.","correct":false,"explanation":"Prejudice and conformity are separate social influence topics, not the main comparability problem. Milgram-style studies varied in procedure, time period and sample, creating alternative explanations."},{"text":"Studies differed in reliability, validity and ethical approval.","correct":false,"explanation":"Although these are general research concerns, they are not the specific problem identified in cross-cultural comparisons. The studies differed in procedure, time period and sample."}]},{"id":"7de4a879-a442-434f-b43c-5e5b9d2ecc83","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How can culture create prejudice through social identity theory?","back":"People form in-groups and favour them over out-groups.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"People form in-groups and favour them over out-groups.","correct":true,"explanation":"Social categorisation creates a sense of belonging to an in-group. People may enhance their social identity by favouring that group and discriminating against relevant out-groups."},{"text":"People compete for limited resources and become hostile to rivals.","correct":false,"explanation":"Competition over scarce resources explains prejudice through realistic conflict theory, not social identity theory. Social identity theory emphasises forming in-groups and favouring them over out-groups."},{"text":"People follow authority figures and punish disobedient out-groups.","correct":false,"explanation":"Following an authority describes obedience rather than social identity theory. The theory explains prejudice through categorisation into in-groups and favouring them over out-groups."},{"text":"People imitate prejudiced models and copy their discriminatory behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"Imitating observed behaviour is a social learning explanation of prejudice. Social identity theory instead proposes that people form in-groups and favour them over out-groups."}]},{"id":"a4aacfb3-0439-46dd-a147-8912e686bd9f","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What did Tajfel et al. (1970/1971) show using minimal groups?","back":"Minimal labels led boys to favour their in-group.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Minimal labels led boys to favour their in-group.","correct":true,"explanation":"Even arbitrary group membership was sufficient to produce in-group favouritism when the boys allocated rewards. This supports social identity theory’s emphasis on categorisation."},{"text":"Minimal labels led boys to favour their out-group.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses Tajfel’s finding. The boys generally allocated rewards to favour members of their own minimal group, demonstrating in-group favouritism rather than out-group favouritism."},{"text":"Minimal labels led boys to allocate rewards equally.","correct":false,"explanation":"Equal allocation would suggest that categorisation had no discriminatory effect. Instead, the boys tended to favour their in-group, despite the group labels being arbitrary."},{"text":"Minimal labels led boys to compete for scarce resources.","correct":false,"explanation":"The minimal-group procedure did not create genuine competition over scarce resources. Arbitrary labels alone led boys to favour their in-group when allocating rewards."}]},{"id":"383f1585-622f-44c6-a928-d7c003992828","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Realistic conflict theory suggests prejudice can arise when groups compete over [ ].","back":"Realistic conflict theory suggests prejudice can arise when groups compete over limited resources.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"limited resources","correct":true,"explanation":"Realistic conflict theory proposes that competition for scarce resources, such as jobs, territory or status, creates conflict between groups and can produce prejudice and discrimination."},{"text":"shared goals","correct":false,"explanation":"Shared goals usually reduce conflict by encouraging groups to cooperate. Realistic conflict theory argues that prejudice arises when groups compete over limited resources."},{"text":"arbitrary labels","correct":false,"explanation":"Arbitrary labels can produce in-group favouritism according to social identity theory. Realistic conflict theory specifically explains prejudice through competition over limited resources."},{"text":"authoritarian leaders","correct":false,"explanation":"Authoritarian leadership may encourage obedience, but it is not the central cause proposed by realistic conflict theory. The theory focuses on competition over limited resources."}]},{"id":"fd2147e1-6c10-41ba-83df-d2d0b3393ecf","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"In Sherif’s Robbers Cave study, what reduced hostility between groups?","back":"Cooperation on shared goals.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Cooperation on shared goals.","correct":true,"explanation":"Superordinate goals required both groups to work together, making cooperation necessary. This reduced hostility by replacing direct competition with a shared purpose."},{"text":"Competition for limited resources.","correct":false,"explanation":"Competition over resources originally increased hostility between the groups rather than reducing it. Hostility declined when the boys cooperated to achieve shared, superordinate goals."},{"text":"Punishment from adult authority figures.","correct":false,"explanation":"The researchers did not reduce conflict by using authority and punishment. Hostility decreased when both groups had to cooperate on shared goals that neither could achieve alone."},{"text":"Separation into isolated group areas.","correct":false,"explanation":"Keeping the groups separate would not address the rivalry and could preserve group divisions. Cooperation on shared goals brought them together and reduced hostility."}]},{"id":"1084ad5e-3b90-422d-939d-5e2f2db5ff5a","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why are environmental explanations useful for reducing prejudice?","back":"They suggest change through education, intergroup contact and cooperation.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They suggest change through education, intergroup contact and cooperation.","correct":true,"explanation":"Environmental accounts treat prejudice as learned and shaped by social conditions. Those conditions can be changed through education, positive contact and cooperative activities."},{"text":"They suggest change through medication, genetic screening and surgery.","correct":false,"explanation":"These are biological interventions and do not follow from an environmental explanation. Environmental accounts support reducing prejudice through education, intergroup contact and cooperation."},{"text":"They suggest change through punishment, isolation and increased competition.","correct":false,"explanation":"Isolation and competition can strengthen group divisions, while punishment may suppress rather than change attitudes. Education, intergroup contact and cooperation target environmental causes more constructively."},{"text":"They suggest change through personality testing, diagnosis and classification.","correct":false,"explanation":"These methods focus on identifying individual differences rather than altering environmental influences. Environmental explanations suggest education, intergroup contact and cooperation can reduce prejudice."}]},{"id":"0856339a-fc89-4d00-b293-b8e550b226fe","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why is culture a difficult cause to isolate?","back":"It interacts with age, class, ethnicity, religion and personality.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It interacts with age, class, ethnicity, religion and personality.","correct":true,"explanation":"Culture overlaps with several demographic and individual variables, making cause and effect difficult to separate. Apparent cultural differences may partly result from these interacting factors."},{"text":"It is independent of age, class, ethnicity, religion and personality.","correct":false,"explanation":"Treating culture as independent ignores important confounding and interacting variables. Culture is difficult to isolate precisely because it interacts with age, class, ethnicity, religion and personality."},{"text":"It has identical effects across age, class, ethnicity, religion and personality.","correct":false,"explanation":"Cultural influences do not necessarily operate identically across all groups or individuals. They interact with age, class, ethnicity, religion and personality, complicating causal conclusions."},{"text":"It is determined by genes, hormones, brain structure, temperament and intelligence.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses cultural influences with biological and individual explanations. Culture is difficult to isolate because it interacts with age, class, ethnicity, religion and personality."}]},{"id":"3fdde22d-c1ea-495f-8324-1c3ee2102782","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What ethical improvement did Burger (2009) make to Milgram’s procedure?","back":"He stopped participants at 150 volts.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"He stopped participants at 150 volts.","correct":true,"explanation":"Burger ended the procedure at 150 volts because Milgram found that participants who continued beyond this point were highly likely to proceed to the maximum voltage."},{"text":"He stopped participants at 300 volts.","correct":false,"explanation":"Stopping at 300 volts would still expose participants to substantial stress. Burger stopped at 150 volts, before the increasingly distressing stages of Milgram’s original procedure."},{"text":"He stopped participants at 450 volts.","correct":false,"explanation":"Stopping at 450 volts would reproduce Milgram’s maximum shock level rather than improve participant protection. Burger ended the procedure at 150 volts to reduce potential distress."},{"text":"He stopped participants at 15 volts.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses the starting voltage with Burger’s stopping point. Burger stopped participants at 150 volts, when the learner first strongly protested and demanded release."}]}]}],"examCountdown":{"examDate":"2027-05-10","paperLabel":"Paper 1"},"heading":"Developmental psychology in obedience/prejudice","title":"Developmental psychology in obedience/prejudice Flashcards","topbar":{"backHref":"/as-level/psychology/edexcel/flashcards"},"topicSidebar":"$L38"}]}],"topicId":"69f7c2bf-15ea-5f02-af9b-18f597280831","walled":"$L39"}],"$L3a","$L3b"]