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process of selecting or confirming the person believed to have committed the crime, often by choosing someone from a line-up."},{"text":"description","correct":false,"explanation":"Description involves reporting remembered characteristics rather than selecting someone from a line-up. The correct term is identification, where the witness chooses or confirms a suspect."},{"text":"rehearsal","correct":false,"explanation":"Rehearsal means repeating information to retain it in memory, not choosing a suspect. Selecting someone from a line-up is known as identification."},{"text":"reconstruction","correct":false,"explanation":"Reconstruction describes rebuilding an event from stored information and expectations, rather than selecting a person. The correct term for choosing from a line-up is identification."}]},{"id":"a9b0dd8d-d386-42ee-bd3a-c4e0ebfbd6bd","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What did Loftus and Palmer (1974) show leading questions can do to EWT?","back":"Alter participants’ memory for a car crash.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Alter participants’ memory for a car crash.","correct":true,"explanation":"Loftus and Palmer found that changing the verb used in a question affected speed estimates and later reports, showing that leading questions can alter memory."},{"text":"Improve participants’ memory for a car crash.","correct":false,"explanation":"Leading questions did not make participants’ memories more accurate. Loftus and Palmer showed that suggestive wording could alter participants’ memory for the car crash."},{"text":"Measure participants’ attention during a car crash.","correct":false,"explanation":"The study investigated the effect of question wording on eyewitness memory, not attention. It showed that leading questions could alter participants’ memory for the crash."},{"text":"Prevent participants’ recall of a car crash.","correct":false,"explanation":"Participants were still able to recall the event, but their reports were influenced by wording. The study showed that leading questions can alter participants’ memory."}]},{"id":"d9a550ae-6307-4693-a190-936bef14308b","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What did Yuille and Cutshall (1986) find about real shooting witnesses months later?","back":"Recall remained fairly accurate.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Recall remained fairly accurate.","correct":true,"explanation":"Yuille and Cutshall found that witnesses to a real shooting still recalled the event fairly accurately several months later, despite some misleading questions."},{"text":"Recall became highly inaccurate.","correct":false,"explanation":"The witnesses did not show the severe decline often expected after a long delay. Their recall remained fairly accurate even several months after the shooting."},{"text":"Recall was accurate only immediately.","correct":false,"explanation":"This assumes that eyewitness memory rapidly became unreliable, but the witnesses were interviewed months later and their recall remained fairly accurate."},{"text":"Recall became entirely fabricated.","correct":false,"explanation":"The witnesses did not invent wholly false accounts after the delay. Yuille and Cutshall found that their recall of the real shooting remained fairly accurate."}]},{"id":"6a072913-1572-4ded-a037-5446706957ea","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"A laboratory experiment manipulates an [ ] and measures a [ ].","back":"A laboratory experiment manipulates an independent variable (IV) and measures a dependent variable (DV).","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A laboratory experiment manipulates an independent variable (IV) and measures a dependent variable (DV).","correct":true,"explanation":"The researcher changes the independent variable and records its effect on the dependent variable, allowing a possible cause-and-effect relationship to be tested."},{"text":"A laboratory experiment manipulates an dependent variable (DV) and measures a independent variable (IV).","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the two variables. A laboratory experiment manipulates the independent variable and measures the dependent variable to assess the effect of the manipulation."},{"text":"A laboratory experiment manipulates an extraneous variable (EV) and measures a dependent variable (DV).","correct":false,"explanation":"Extraneous variables should be controlled rather than deliberately manipulated. The researcher manipulates the independent variable and measures the resulting dependent variable."},{"text":"A laboratory experiment manipulates an independent variable (IV) and measures a control variable (CV).","correct":false,"explanation":"Control variables are kept constant, not measured as the outcome. A laboratory experiment manipulates the independent variable and measures the dependent variable."}]},{"id":"62571b9a-50f5-4c7f-922e-866d5f29c86d","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why might a lab EWT study lack ecological validity?","back":"The task may not feel like a real crime situation.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The task may not feel like a real crime situation.","correct":true,"explanation":"Laboratory eyewitness tasks may lack the danger, stress and personal consequences of witnessing a genuine crime, so behaviour may not reflect real-life eyewitness testimony."},{"text":"The sample may not represent the target population.","correct":false,"explanation":"An unrepresentative sample concerns population validity rather than whether the task resembles real life. Ecological validity may be low because the task does not feel like a real crime situation."},{"text":"Participants may guess the researcher’s hypothesis.","correct":false,"explanation":"Guessing the hypothesis creates demand characteristics and may threaten internal validity. Ecological validity is limited when the task does not feel like a real crime situation."},{"text":"The procedure may be difficult to replicate accurately.","correct":false,"explanation":"Difficulty replicating a procedure concerns reliability, whereas laboratory studies are usually highly standardised. Ecological validity may be low because the task lacks a real crime situation."}]},{"id":"e9391b70-f1ab-41dc-bb43-bbd1ce31a468","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why do field EWT experiments often have less control?","back":"Extraneous variables like viewpoint are harder to control.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Extraneous variables like viewpoint are harder to control.","correct":true,"explanation":"Field experiments occur in more natural settings, where researchers cannot standardise factors such as each witness’s viewpoint, making extraneous variables harder to control."},{"text":"Extraneous variables like viewpoint are easier to control.","correct":false,"explanation":"Natural settings reduce rather than increase researcher control. Factors such as each witness’s viewpoint are harder to standardise in field eyewitness experiments."},{"text":"Dependent variables like accuracy are harder to control.","correct":false,"explanation":"Accuracy is normally measured as the dependent variable, not controlled as an unwanted influence. Field experiments have less control because extraneous variables such as viewpoint vary."},{"text":"Extraneous variables like viewpoint are harder to measure.","correct":false,"explanation":"The key issue is not simply measuring viewpoint but preventing it from affecting results. Field experiments have less control because extraneous variables such as viewpoint are harder to control."}]},{"id":"6e80399b-7ecc-4da0-8a66-33875f0f4a2e","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"As EWT research becomes more realistic, it often becomes harder to maintain [ ].","back":"As EWT research becomes more realistic, it often becomes harder to maintain control.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"control","correct":true,"explanation":"More realistic research takes place in less standardised settings, so researchers have less control over extraneous variables that could influence eyewitness performance."},{"text":"realism","correct":false,"explanation":"Increasing realism does not usually make realism harder to maintain. The trade-off is that realistic settings make experimental control over extraneous variables more difficult."},{"text":"validity","correct":false,"explanation":"Greater realism can improve ecological validity rather than necessarily reducing it. What becomes harder to maintain is control over extraneous variables and procedures."},{"text":"generalisability","correct":false,"explanation":"Realistic research may sometimes improve generalisability to everyday settings. The main difficulty is maintaining control because more uncontrolled variables operate in natural situations."}]},{"id":"e4daf1d8-d6f2-4630-99ca-2688606fae9e","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why may a case study of one real crime fail to generalise?","back":"A single case may be unrepresentative.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A single case may be unrepresentative.","correct":true,"explanation":"One crime and its witnesses may have unusual characteristics, so findings from that single case cannot confidently be generalised to other crimes or witnesses."},{"text":"An artificial task may lack realism.","correct":false,"explanation":"Artificial tasks are mainly a concern in laboratory research, not a defining limitation of a real-crime case study. Generalisation fails because a single case may be unrepresentative."},{"text":"A small effect may lack significance.","correct":false,"explanation":"Statistical significance concerns whether a quantitative result is likely due to chance. A case study may fail to generalise because its single case is unrepresentative."},{"text":"A standardised procedure may be replicable.","correct":false,"explanation":"Replicability concerns reliability and does not explain limited generalisation. Findings from one real crime may not apply elsewhere because a single case may be unrepresentative."}]},{"id":"fc1d9c64-6525-4267-877b-ede9080f5e89","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"If a researcher uses whoever is available, which sampling method is this?","back":"Opportunity sampling.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Opportunity sampling.","correct":true,"explanation":"Opportunity sampling recruits people who are readily available and willing to participate, rather than selecting them through a random or systematic procedure."},{"text":"Random sampling.","correct":false,"explanation":"Random sampling selects participants using chance from a sampling frame. Recruiting whoever is available instead describes opportunity sampling."},{"text":"Volunteer sampling.","correct":false,"explanation":"Volunteer sampling relies on people responding to an invitation or advertisement. Using individuals who happen to be available is opportunity sampling."},{"text":"Systematic sampling.","correct":false,"explanation":"Systematic sampling selects every nth person from an ordered sampling frame. Choosing whoever is conveniently available is opportunity sampling."}]},{"id":"08732aab-447b-493f-8058-457478b2dedf","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why can random sampling reduce researcher bias?","back":"Each target-population member has an equal chance of selection.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Each target-population member has an equal chance of selection.","correct":true,"explanation":"Random selection gives every member of the target population an equal chance of inclusion, preventing the researcher from deliberately favouring particular participants."},{"text":"Each target-population volunteer has a greater chance of selection.","correct":false,"explanation":"Giving volunteers priority would create volunteer bias because those who come forward may share particular characteristics. Random sampling reduces researcher bias through equal selection chances."},{"text":"Each target-population member is chosen by the researcher for selection.","correct":false,"explanation":"Allowing the researcher to choose representative-looking people introduces subjective judgement and possible researcher bias. Random sampling instead gives every target-population member an equal chance."},{"text":"Each target-population group has an equal number selected.","correct":false,"explanation":"Equal numbers from population subgroups describe stratified sampling rather than the defining feature of random sampling. Random selection reduces bias by giving every individual an equal chance."}]},{"id":"a80efe3a-c5bf-4418-86f0-ca159ed687cd","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"If two researchers independently score recall transcripts, what reliability is checked?","back":"Inter-rater reliability.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Inter-rater reliability.","correct":true,"explanation":"Inter-rater reliability measures the consistency between independent scorers or judges applying the same coding or assessment procedure to the same material."},{"text":"Test-retest reliability.","correct":false,"explanation":"Test-retest reliability checks whether the same measure produces consistent results on separate occasions. Agreement between two people scoring transcripts is inter-rater reliability."},{"text":"Internal consistency.","correct":false,"explanation":"Internal consistency assesses whether items within one test measure the same construct. Consistency between independent scorers is assessed using inter-rater reliability."},{"text":"Parallel-forms reliability.","correct":false,"explanation":"Parallel-forms reliability compares scores from two equivalent versions of a test. Comparing independent researchers’ transcript scores instead checks inter-rater reliability."}]},{"id":"82346248-16a0-4257-b305-9b4609a7c3f3","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"A valid EWT study should measure [ ], not just ability to watch a short film.","back":"A valid EWT study should measure genuine witness memory, not just ability to watch a short film.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"genuine witness memory","correct":true,"explanation":"Ecological validity requires eyewitness testimony research to capture genuine witness memory, including the emotional and situational demands involved in witnessing a real event."},{"text":"general cognitive ability","correct":false,"explanation":"General cognitive ability is broader than the construct an EWT study is intended to assess. A valid study should specifically measure genuine witness memory."},{"text":"short-term visual memory","correct":false,"explanation":"Short-term visual memory may be involved in watching a film, but it does not fully represent eyewitness testimony. The intended construct is genuine witness memory."},{"text":"participant film comprehension","correct":false,"explanation":"Participant film comprehension concerns understanding a recording rather than remembering a witnessed event as an eyewitness. Valid EWT research should measure genuine witness memory."}]},{"id":"a4e71ca0-d47e-4f10-9b2e-efcdcf6499ab","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How does blind rating improve objectivity?","back":"Scorers do not know the participant’s condition.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Scorers do not know the participant’s condition.","correct":true,"explanation":"Keeping scorers unaware of each participant’s condition prevents expectations about the experimental groups from influencing how responses are interpreted or awarded marks."},{"text":"Scorers do not know the participant’s identity.","correct":false,"explanation":"Participants’ identities may be concealed for confidentiality, but this does not specifically prevent expectancy effects between experimental groups. Blind scorers must not know each participant’s condition."},{"text":"Scorers do not know the participant’s total score.","correct":false,"explanation":"Hiding the participant’s overall score does not remove bias if scorers know which experimental group produced the response. Blind rating conceals the participant’s condition."},{"text":"Scorers do not know the participant’s consent status.","correct":false,"explanation":"Not knowing the participant’s consent status is irrelevant to objective scoring and would raise ethical concerns. Scorers should instead be unaware of the participant’s condition."}]},{"id":"1c598120-7882-4ec7-92d9-aa3de20f88e1","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which credibility technique uses multiple sources or evidence types?","back":"Triangulation.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Triangulation.","correct":true,"explanation":"Triangulation checks credibility by comparing findings from multiple researchers, methods, data sources or theories, looking for convergence across different forms of evidence."},{"text":"Peer review.","correct":false,"explanation":"Peer review involves experts evaluating research quality, but it does not necessarily compare multiple sources or evidence types. That credibility technique is triangulation."},{"text":"Member checking.","correct":false,"explanation":"Member checking asks participants to confirm whether interpretations accurately represent their experiences. Combining multiple sources or forms of evidence is triangulation."},{"text":"Inter-rater reliability.","correct":false,"explanation":"Inter-rater reliability assesses agreement between scorers using the same coding system. Using different sources or evidence types to strengthen credibility is triangulation."}]},{"id":"0d91dbd1-4f7a-4e95-8901-d8b17e19b497","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"In staged crime research, when is deception ethically acceptable?","back":"When it is justified.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"When it is justified.","correct":true,"explanation":"Deception may be ethically acceptable when it is justified by the study’s significant value, no suitable non-deceptive alternative exists, and participants are properly debriefed."},{"text":"When it is realistic.","correct":false,"explanation":"Greater realism does not automatically make deception ethical because potential harm and participants’ rights must still be considered. Deception is acceptable only when justified."},{"text":"When it is brief.","correct":false,"explanation":"Brief deception can still violate informed consent or cause distress. Its ethical acceptability depends on whether it is justified, not merely how long it lasts."},{"text":"When it is undisclosed.","correct":false,"explanation":"Keeping deception undisclosed prevents an adequate debrief and may leave participants distressed or misinformed. Deception must be justified and explained afterwards."}]},{"id":"d233553d-b62f-45aa-b7f5-447ae55d2754","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Standard deviation describes the typical distance of scores from the [ ].","back":"Standard deviation describes the typical distance of scores from the mean.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"mean","correct":true,"explanation":"Standard deviation measures dispersion around the mean by summarising how far scores typically deviate from the arithmetic average of the distribution."},{"text":"median","correct":false,"explanation":"The median is the middle score when values are ordered, but standard deviation is calculated using deviations from the mean rather than the median."},{"text":"mode","correct":false,"explanation":"The mode is the most frequent score and is not used as the reference point for standard deviation. Distances are measured from the mean."},{"text":"range","correct":false,"explanation":"The range is itself a measure of dispersion calculated from the highest and lowest scores. Standard deviation instead describes typical distance from the mean."}]},{"id":"266a9c5b-a04e-40c1-b85a-eec854d1dc6f","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why does a confidence-accuracy correlation not prove causation?","back":"It only shows a relationship between co-variables.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It only shows a relationship between co-variables.","correct":true,"explanation":"A correlation establishes that two co-variables are related, but it cannot establish which variable causes the other or rule out the influence of a third variable."},{"text":"It shows that confidence causes greater accuracy.","correct":false,"explanation":"Treating confidence as the cause confuses correlation with causation. The result only shows a relationship between co-variables, without establishing the direction of any causal effect."},{"text":"It proves that accuracy causes greater confidence.","correct":false,"explanation":"Reversing the assumed direction does not solve the causality problem. The correlation only shows a relationship between co-variables and cannot demonstrate that accuracy causes confidence."},{"text":"It rules out the effects of extraneous variables.","correct":false,"explanation":"A correlation does not control or eliminate third variables that might explain the association. It only shows a relationship between co-variables, so causation cannot be concluded."}]},{"id":"fb30d9f7-0b05-4bc8-b033-aad837c12d9b","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What does a meta-analysis do with multiple studies?","back":"It statistically combines their findings.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It statistically combines their findings.","correct":true,"explanation":"A meta-analysis applies statistical techniques to results from several studies, producing an overall estimate of the size and consistency of an effect."},{"text":"It qualitatively describes their findings.","correct":false,"explanation":"A qualitative description is characteristic of a narrative or systematic review without statistical synthesis. A meta-analysis statistically combines findings from multiple studies."},{"text":"It individually replicates their findings.","correct":false,"explanation":"Replication involves conducting a study again rather than analysing existing results. A meta-analysis statistically combines the findings of multiple studies to estimate an overall effect."},{"text":"It selectively confirms their findings.","correct":false,"explanation":"Selecting only supportive findings would introduce bias rather than constitute meta-analysis. A proper meta-analysis statistically combines findings using defined inclusion criteria and quantitative procedures."}]},{"id":"9dcaab1d-0e04-455f-9e35-bdd064863542","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"The default psychology significance level is usually [ ].","back":"The default psychology significance level is usually $p \\le .05$.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"$$p \\le .05$","correct":true,"explanation":"A result is conventionally considered statistically significant in psychology when its probability under the null hypothesis is 5% or lower, expressed as $p \\le .05$."},{"text":"$$p \\ge .05$","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the comparison sign. Statistical significance is conventionally reached when the probability is sufficiently low, so the usual threshold is $p \\le .05$."},{"text":"$$p \\le .50$","correct":false,"explanation":"This decimal-place error permits a 50% probability, which provides very weak evidence against the null hypothesis. Psychology usually uses the stricter level $p \\le .05$."},{"text":"$$p \\le .01$","correct":false,"explanation":"This is a valid but more stringent significance level, often used when stronger evidence is required. The usual default in psychology is $p \\le .05$."}]},{"id":"19ddb477-2b12-47ca-a6f3-0545c15dee1a","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which test fits association between categories using nominal data?","back":"Chi-square.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Chi-square.","correct":true,"explanation":"Chi-square tests whether there is a statistically significant association between two categorical variables represented as frequencies in categories, making it suitable for nominal data."},{"text":"Spearman’s rho.","correct":false,"explanation":"Spearman’s rho tests correlation between ranked or ordinal co-variables, not association between nominal categories. Chi-square is used when both variables provide categorical frequency data."},{"text":"Mann-Whitney U.","correct":false,"explanation":"Mann-Whitney U compares scores from two independent groups rather than testing association between nominal categories. Chi-square is the appropriate test for categorical frequency data."},{"text":"Wilcoxon signed-ranks.","correct":false,"explanation":"Wilcoxon signed-ranks compares scores from two related conditions rather than testing an association between nominal categories. Chi-square is appropriate for categorical frequency data."}]},{"id":"bba4896a-4f59-47a0-82b2-8b7c49a5d9bf","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which test fits a correlation between two ranked co-variables?","back":"Spearman’s rho.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Spearman’s rho.","correct":true,"explanation":"Spearman’s rho is a non-parametric test of correlation used when two co-variables provide paired data that can be converted into ranks."},{"text":"Chi-square.","correct":false,"explanation":"Chi-square tests association between categorical frequency data, not correlation between two ranked co-variables. Spearman’s rho is designed to test a relationship using ranks."},{"text":"Mann-Whitney U.","correct":false,"explanation":"Mann-Whitney U tests a difference between two independent groups rather than a correlation. Spearman’s rho tests whether two ranked co-variables are significantly related."},{"text":"Wilcoxon signed-ranks.","correct":false,"explanation":"Wilcoxon signed-ranks tests a difference between two related conditions rather than a correlation. Spearman’s rho is the appropriate test for two ranked co-variables."}]},{"id":"6502013f-af90-48b8-8289-cc01b822a990","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which test fits a difference between two independent groups?","back":"Mann-Whitney U.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Mann-Whitney U.","correct":true,"explanation":"Mann-Whitney U is a non-parametric test of difference for two independent groups, where different participants contribute scores to each group."},{"text":"Wilcoxon signed-ranks.","correct":false,"explanation":"Wilcoxon signed-ranks requires related data, such as repeated measures or matched pairs. Mann-Whitney U is used when the two groups are independent."},{"text":"Spearman’s rho.","correct":false,"explanation":"Spearman’s rho tests a correlation between two ranked co-variables rather than a difference between groups. Mann-Whitney U compares two independent groups."},{"text":"Chi-square.","correct":false,"explanation":"Chi-square tests an association between categorical variables using frequencies, not a difference between two independent sets of ranked scores. Mann-Whitney U fits that design."}]},{"id":"a1e06f3e-e5e1-41ec-a4b6-6ba19b89c416","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which test fits a difference between two related conditions?","back":"Wilcoxon signed-ranks.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Wilcoxon signed-ranks.","correct":true,"explanation":"Wilcoxon signed-ranks is a non-parametric test of difference for related data, including repeated-measures designs and matched pairs where scores occur in linked pairs."},{"text":"Mann-Whitney U.","correct":false,"explanation":"Mann-Whitney U is used for two independent groups whose scores are unrelated. Wilcoxon signed-ranks is appropriate when the two conditions produce paired or related scores."},{"text":"Spearman’s rho.","correct":false,"explanation":"Spearman’s rho tests a correlation between ranked co-variables, not a difference between related conditions. Wilcoxon signed-ranks is the appropriate difference test."},{"text":"Chi-square.","correct":false,"explanation":"Chi-square assesses association between categorical variables using frequencies rather than comparing related scores. Wilcoxon signed-ranks tests differences between two related conditions."}]},{"id":"04b3aea9-dc8e-453e-8668-d0e04fb88d4f","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"For Wilcoxon, what comparison shows significance?","back":"Observed value is equal to or less than critical value.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Observed value is equal to or less than critical value.","correct":true,"explanation":"For Wilcoxon, a small observed test statistic indicates limited overlap between the conditions. The result is significant when the observed value equals or falls below the critical value."},{"text":"Observed value is equal to or greater than critical value.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the decision rule for Wilcoxon. Significance is reached when the observed test statistic is equal to or less than the critical value."},{"text":"Observed value is equal to critical value only.","correct":false,"explanation":"Equality is sufficient, but it is not the only significant outcome. Any observed Wilcoxon value below the critical value is also significant, so the rule includes lower values."},{"text":"Observed value is equal to or less than significance level.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses the observed test statistic with a probability value. For Wilcoxon tables, the observed statistic is compared with the critical value and must be equal to or lower."}]},{"id":"b1ff3fde-b473-4ab4-bca4-a0b27fd465d5","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"A one-tailed test is suitable for a [ ] hypothesis.","back":"A one-tailed test is suitable for a directional hypothesis.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"directional","correct":true,"explanation":"A directional hypothesis predicts the specific direction of a difference or relationship, so all of the significance level can be placed in one tail of the distribution."},{"text":"non-directional","correct":false,"explanation":"A non-directional hypothesis predicts an effect without specifying its direction, so it requires a two-tailed test. A one-tailed test is appropriate for a directional hypothesis."},{"text":"null","correct":false,"explanation":"A null hypothesis predicts no significant difference or relationship and is assessed rather than used to select one tail. A one-tailed test requires a directional hypothesis."},{"text":"alternative","correct":false,"explanation":"An alternative hypothesis may be directional or non-directional, so this label alone does not justify a one-tailed test. The hypothesis must specifically be directional."}]},{"id":"2a6cd9ec-cff0-425b-83d7-70b3588dc607","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"If a researcher rejects a true null hypothesis, what error has occurred?","back":"Type I error.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Type I error.","correct":true,"explanation":"A Type I error occurs when a researcher rejects a null hypothesis that is actually true, producing a false positive result."},{"text":"Type II error.","correct":false,"explanation":"A Type II error involves retaining a false null hypothesis, not rejecting a true one. Rejecting a true null hypothesis is a Type I error."},{"text":"Sampling error.","correct":false,"explanation":"Sampling error is the difference between a sample result and the true population value caused by chance. Rejecting a true null hypothesis is specifically a Type I error."},{"text":"Observer bias.","correct":false,"explanation":"Observer bias occurs when a researcher’s expectations influence observations or recording. Rejecting a null hypothesis that is actually true is instead a Type I error."}]},{"id":"65495015-3396-4704-8659-8486ef8a2423","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Grounded theory develops a [ ] rather than starting with a fixed theory.","back":"Grounded theory develops a theory from the data rather than starting with a fixed theory.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"theory from the data","correct":true,"explanation":"Grounded theory uses systematic analysis and coding to allow a theory to emerge inductively from collected data rather than testing a predetermined theoretical framework."},{"text":"hypothesis before the data","correct":false,"explanation":"Formulating a hypothesis before collecting data describes a deductive approach based on an existing theory. Grounded theory instead develops a theory from the data."},{"text":"conclusion without the data","correct":false,"explanation":"Grounded theory does not produce unsupported conclusions; it builds explanations through systematic coding and comparison. It therefore develops a theory from the data."},{"text":"theory before the data","correct":false,"explanation":"Beginning with a theory and then collecting data to test it is a deductive approach. Grounded theory works inductively by developing a theory from the data."}]},{"id":"866c03ab-df58-46c0-a125-cba188a87e9c","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"In a cognitive interview experiment, what could the DV be?","back":"Number of accurate details recalled.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Number of accurate details recalled.","correct":true,"explanation":"The dependent variable is the measured outcome. In a cognitive interview experiment, researchers can measure recall accuracy by counting the accurate details each participant reports."},{"text":"Number of leading questions asked.","correct":false,"explanation":"The number of leading questions would be a controlled or manipulated feature of the interview, not the measured recall outcome. The DV could be the number of accurate details recalled."},{"text":"Type of interview technique used.","correct":false,"explanation":"The interview technique is the independent variable because the researcher manipulates it between conditions. The DV could be the number of accurate details recalled."},{"text":"Length of the video clip shown.","correct":false,"explanation":"Video length would normally be controlled to ensure a fair comparison, rather than measured as the outcome. The DV could be the number of accurate details recalled."}]}]}],"examCountdown":{"examDate":"2027-05-10","paperLabel":"Paper 1"},"heading":"Research methods and skills","title":"Research methods and skills Flashcards","topbar":{"backHref":"/as-level/psychology/edexcel/flashcards"},"topicSidebar":"$L39"}]}],"topicId":"3c040bac-9832-58f4-98a9-b8dd097559ef","walled":"$L3a"}],"$L3b","$L3c"]