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development examines changes throughout the whole course of an individual’s life, from early development through childhood and adulthood to old age."},{"text":"population","correct":false,"explanation":"A population describes a group of individuals, not the period over which one person develops. Human development involves changes across the lifespan."},{"text":"generations","correct":false,"explanation":"Changes across generations concern evolutionary or historical change rather than individual development. Human development tracks changes across a person’s lifespan."},{"text":"brain","correct":false,"explanation":"The brain is one biological system involved in development, but development also includes bodily, emotional and social changes across the entire lifespan."}]},{"id":"c80b30b7-b6b4-4263-a64c-0f18d5651036","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Evolution is an [ ] of development, while hormones are a [ ].","back":"Evolution is an ultimate explanation of development, while hormones are a proximate explanation.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Evolution is an ultimate explanation of development, while hormones are a proximate explanation.","correct":true,"explanation":"Evolution provides an ultimate explanation by addressing why a developmental trait was selected, whereas hormones provide a proximate explanation of the mechanisms producing it."},{"text":"Evolution is a proximate explanation of development, while hormones are an ultimate explanation.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the two levels of explanation. Evolution explains why characteristics were selected, so it is ultimate; hormones explain immediate mechanisms, so they are proximate."},{"text":"Evolution is an ultimate explanation of development, while hormones are an ultimate explanation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Hormones do not explain the evolutionary function of development. They describe immediate biological mechanisms, making them a proximate explanation, while evolution is an ultimate explanation."},{"text":"Evolution is a proximate explanation of development, while hormones are a proximate explanation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Although hormones are a proximate mechanism, evolution addresses why a developmental characteristic exists and enhanced reproductive success, making evolution an ultimate explanation."}]},{"id":"e5945c77-4a6b-4b40-b615-bb693b745356","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What does biology is not destiny imply for development?","back":"Biological systems create tendencies, but experience also shapes outcomes.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Biological systems create tendencies, but experience also shapes outcomes.","correct":true,"explanation":"Biological influences predispose people towards certain developmental patterns without fixing them completely. Environmental experiences interact with these tendencies to shape the eventual outcome."},{"text":"Biological systems create fixed outcomes, and experience cannot alter them.","correct":false,"explanation":"This expresses biological determinism, which the phrase rejects. Biology produces tendencies rather than unavoidable outcomes, and experience can influence how development proceeds."},{"text":"Experience creates all developmental outcomes, while biology has no influence.","correct":false,"explanation":"Rejecting biological destiny does not mean rejecting biology entirely. Biological systems create tendencies, but experience interacts with them to influence developmental outcomes."},{"text":"Biological systems create tendencies, but experience shapes only physical growth.","correct":false,"explanation":"Experience influences cognitive, emotional and social development as well as physical growth. Biological tendencies and experience interact across many areas of development."}]},{"id":"dc3ab58f-01b6-4cb3-9c21-89e9be76dcea","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"In natural selection, what happens to traits that improve survival or reproduction?","back":"They become more common over generations.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They become more common over generations.","correct":true,"explanation":"Traits that improve survival or reproductive success are more likely to be passed on, so their frequency tends to increase across successive generations."},{"text":"They become less common over generations.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses natural selection. Advantageous traits increase their bearers’ reproductive success and therefore tend to become more common, not less common, over generations."},{"text":"They stay equally common over generations.","correct":false,"explanation":"This overlooks differences in reproductive success. If a trait improves survival or reproduction, its bearers pass it on more often, increasing its frequency over generations."},{"text":"They become completely universal in the next generation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Natural selection usually changes trait frequencies gradually rather than making a trait universal immediately. Advantageous traits tend to become more common over multiple generations."}]},{"id":"f9a0668a-7368-4746-b3d2-bd3b608153fa","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"In evolutionary psychology, [ ] means reproductive success, not physical strength.","back":"In evolutionary psychology, fitness means reproductive success, not physical strength.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"fitness","correct":true,"explanation":"In evolutionary psychology, fitness refers to reproductive success: an organism’s contribution of surviving offspring, and therefore genes, to future generations."},{"text":"strength","correct":false,"explanation":"Everyday language can associate being fit with physical strength, but evolutionary fitness specifically means reproductive success rather than muscular power."},{"text":"dominance","correct":false,"explanation":"Social dominance may sometimes affect access to resources or mates, but it is not the definition. Fitness means reproductive success in evolutionary psychology."},{"text":"survival","correct":false,"explanation":"Survival can contribute to evolutionary success, but surviving without reproducing does not pass on genes. Fitness is defined in terms of reproductive success."}]},{"id":"de0f6166-ef8d-485b-980b-308c836ac8b0","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why might evolved attachment behaviours support infant survival?","back":"They keep infants close to protective caregivers.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They keep infants close to protective caregivers.","correct":true,"explanation":"Behaviours such as crying, clinging and following maintain proximity to adults who can provide food, warmth and protection, increasing an infant’s chances of survival."},{"text":"They keep infants independent from adult caregivers.","correct":false,"explanation":"Attachment behaviours promote proximity rather than independence. Staying close to protective caregivers helps vulnerable infants obtain care and avoid threats."},{"text":"They encourage infants to explore without caregiver support.","correct":false,"explanation":"Exploration is supported by having a caregiver as a secure base, but attachment behaviours themselves restore proximity and protection when an infant feels threatened."},{"text":"They make infants physically stronger than potential predators.","correct":false,"explanation":"Attachment behaviours do not directly increase an infant’s physical strength. They improve survival by keeping the infant near adults who can provide protection."}]},{"id":"37722ad2-4411-48ad-8dd0-a5f388545dee","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which Bowlby concept describes crying, smiling and clinging triggering adult caregiving?","back":"They are social releasers.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They are social releasers.","correct":true,"explanation":"Social releasers are innate infant behaviours, including crying and smiling, that elicit caregiving responses from adults and help maintain attachment."},{"text":"They are internal working models.","correct":false,"explanation":"An internal working model is a mental representation of relationships formed from early attachment. Behaviours that trigger caregiving are social releasers."},{"text":"They are secure bases.","correct":false,"explanation":"A secure base is the caregiver from whom an infant can explore and seek safety. Crying, smiling and clinging are social releasers that prompt caregiving."},{"text":"They are critical periods.","correct":false,"explanation":"A critical period is a limited developmental window for forming attachment, not an infant behaviour. Caregiving signals such as crying and smiling are social releasers."}]},{"id":"7923f142-b1e6-4b64-a00d-e14e60eadd57","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Bowlby’s [ ] is the idea that infants form one especially important attachment relationship.","back":"Bowlby’s monotropy is the idea that infants form one especially important attachment relationship.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"monotropy","correct":true,"explanation":"Monotropy is Bowlby’s proposal that an infant forms one attachment of special importance, usually with a primary attachment figure."},{"text":"reciprocity","correct":false,"explanation":"Reciprocity describes coordinated interaction in which infant and caregiver respond to each other. The idea of one especially important attachment is monotropy."},{"text":"imprinting","correct":false,"explanation":"Imprinting is rapid attachment-like learning observed particularly in young animals. Bowlby called the infant’s especially important attachment relationship monotropy."},{"text":"continuity","correct":false,"explanation":"Continuity refers to the idea that early attachment patterns may influence later relationships. Bowlby’s concept for one especially important attachment is monotropy."}]},{"id":"1b70eae6-5224-4baa-89f7-872f3639dee0","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What is Bowlby’s internal working model used for?","back":"A mental template for future relationships.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A mental template for future relationships.","correct":true,"explanation":"The internal working model is Bowlby’s cognitive framework of early attachment experiences, which creates expectations about how the self and others will behave in later relationships."},{"text":"A record of memories from early relationships.","correct":false,"explanation":"A record simply stores past experiences rather than guiding expectations. Bowlby described the internal working model as a mental template used to understand and approach future relationships."},{"text":"A measure of temperament for predicting attachment type.","correct":false,"explanation":"Temperament concerns biologically influenced personality differences, not Bowlby’s internal working model. The model is a mental template that shapes expectations about future relationships."},{"text":"A reflexive response for maintaining proximity.","correct":false,"explanation":"Proximity-seeking is part of the behavioural attachment system, not the internal working model. The model is a mental template for interpreting and managing future relationships."}]},{"id":"66b25a33-8c1e-4182-bb8b-903c3024fa93","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Which timing term is safer for human attachment: critical period or sensitive period?","back":"Sensitive period, because human attachment is flexible.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Sensitive period, because human attachment is flexible.","correct":true,"explanation":"A sensitive period is the safer term because attachment forms most readily during a particular time, but humans retain some flexibility to form attachments later."},{"text":"Critical period, because attachment is irreversible after infancy.","correct":false,"explanation":"A critical period implies an inflexible deadline after which attachment cannot form. Human attachment can still develop later, so sensitive period is the safer term."},{"text":"Critical period, because attachment occurs at one fixed biological deadline.","correct":false,"explanation":"Human attachment does not occur at one exact, irreversible biological deadline. Its capacity for later development makes sensitive period more appropriate than critical period."},{"text":"Imprinting period, because human infants automatically follow the first caregiver.","correct":false,"explanation":"Imprinting describes rapid attachment-like following in some animals, particularly birds, rather than the timing of human attachment. Sensitive period is the safer human term."}]},{"id":"9cde22e2-223e-4d25-a9ee-5fa0a3a7f24a","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Lorenz (1935) found [ ]: goslings followed the first moving object after hatching.","back":"Lorenz (1935) found imprinting: goslings followed the first moving object after hatching.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"imprinting","correct":true,"explanation":"Imprinting is the rapid, early process Lorenz demonstrated when newly hatched goslings followed the first moving object they encountered, treating it as their attachment figure."},{"text":"habituation","correct":false,"explanation":"Habituation is a reduced response after repeated exposure to a stimulus; it does not explain following the first moving object. Lorenz’s goslings demonstrated imprinting."},{"text":"classical conditioning","correct":false,"explanation":"Classical conditioning involves learning through association between stimuli, whereas Lorenz observed an innate, rapid process shortly after hatching. The process was imprinting."},{"text":"operant conditioning","correct":false,"explanation":"Operant conditioning depends on consequences such as reinforcement or punishment. Lorenz’s goslings followed without being rewarded, demonstrating the innate process of imprinting."}]},{"id":"14c19301-e809-4cc6-96c9-5602de9c8145","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What did Harlow’s cloth-and-wire mother study challenge?","back":"Attachment is only about feeding.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Attachment is only about feeding.","correct":true,"explanation":"The monkeys preferred the soft cloth mother even when the wire mother supplied milk, challenging the view that attachment develops only because caregivers provide food."},{"text":"Attachment is primarily determined by genetic similarity.","correct":false,"explanation":"Harlow did not manipulate genetic similarity between infants and caregivers. His cloth-and-wire mothers tested whether feeding or contact comfort was more important for attachment."},{"text":"Attachment is formed only during adolescence.","correct":false,"explanation":"Harlow studied infant rhesus monkeys rather than adolescent attachment. The research challenged feeding-based explanations by showing that infants preferred contact comfort."},{"text":"Attachment is stronger with unfamiliar caregivers.","correct":false,"explanation":"The study did not compare familiar and unfamiliar caregivers. It challenged the feeding explanation because monkeys preferred the comforting cloth mother over the milk-providing wire mother."}]},{"id":"2a02e24d-23d2-4da4-9d53-b18adb1acb02","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why can evolutionary explanations be criticised as post hoc?","back":"They may explain behaviour after the fact without direct ancestral evidence.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They may explain behaviour after the fact without direct ancestral evidence.","correct":true,"explanation":"Evolutionary accounts may construct an adaptive explanation once a behaviour is already known. Without direct evidence about ancestral selection pressures, that explanation can be difficult to verify."},{"text":"They may predict behaviour in advance using direct ancestral evidence.","correct":false,"explanation":"Generating advance predictions from direct evidence is the opposite of post hoc reasoning. The criticism is that evolutionary accounts may explain known behaviour retrospectively without direct ancestral evidence."},{"text":"They may describe behaviour at the time without considering its function.","correct":false,"explanation":"Describing behaviour without considering its function is not the post hoc criticism. Post hoc evolutionary accounts assign adaptive functions after observing behaviour, often without direct ancestral evidence."},{"text":"They may test behaviour under laboratory conditions without ecological validity.","correct":false,"explanation":"Low ecological validity is a separate criticism concerning artificial research settings. Post hoc criticism instead concerns explaining existing behaviour retrospectively without direct evidence from ancestral environments."}]},{"id":"925b32f3-f03c-468d-a153-31d12027bdb7","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"A hormone is a chemical messenger released by an [ ] into the bloodstream; target cells need the right [ ].","back":"A hormone is a chemical messenger released by an endocrine gland into the bloodstream; target cells need the right receptors.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A hormone is a chemical messenger released by an endocrine gland into the bloodstream; target cells need the right receptors.","correct":true,"explanation":"Endocrine glands secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream. Only target cells possessing receptors complementary to a particular hormone can detect and respond to it."},{"text":"A hormone is a chemical messenger released by an exocrine gland into the bloodstream; target cells need the right receptors.","correct":false,"explanation":"Exocrine glands release substances through ducts rather than directly into the bloodstream. Hormones are released by endocrine glands, while responsive target cells require the correct receptors."},{"text":"A hormone is a chemical messenger released by an endocrine gland into the bloodstream; target cells need the right enzymes.","correct":false,"explanation":"Enzymes catalyse chemical reactions but do not provide hormone-specific recognition at target cells. Endocrine glands release hormones, and target cells respond only when they have matching receptors."},{"text":"A hormone is a chemical messenger released by a sebaceous gland into the bloodstream; target cells need the right antigens.","correct":false,"explanation":"Sebaceous glands are exocrine glands that secrete sebum through ducts, while antigens trigger immune recognition. Hormones come from endocrine glands and act on cells with matching receptors."}]},{"id":"1a169dab-98d7-4ae8-8ae0-54f4eb6a0a62","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which axis links the hypothalamus, pituitary gland and gonads during puberty?","back":"The HPG axis.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The HPG axis.","correct":true,"explanation":"HPG stands for hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal. This axis coordinates hormonal communication between the hypothalamus, pituitary gland and gonads, driving sexual maturation during puberty."},{"text":"The HPA axis.","correct":false,"explanation":"The HPA axis links the hypothalamus, pituitary and adrenal glands and is chiefly associated with stress. Pubertal communication with the gonads uses the HPG axis."},{"text":"The HPT axis.","correct":false,"explanation":"The HPT axis links the hypothalamus, pituitary and thyroid gland to regulate metabolism. The pathway involving the gonads during puberty is the HPG axis."},{"text":"The SAM axis.","correct":false,"explanation":"The SAM axis involves the sympathetic nervous system and adrenal medulla during acute stress, not the pituitary-gonadal pathway. Puberty is regulated through the HPG axis."}]},{"id":"34b9a6f5-fb88-4a80-88b7-1ff6cccb3da8","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"During puberty, what does the hypothalamus release in the HPG axis?","back":"Gonadotrophin-releasing hormone.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Gonadotrophin-releasing hormone.","correct":true,"explanation":"At puberty, the hypothalamus releases gonadotrophin-releasing hormone, which stimulates the pituitary gland to release gonadotrophins that act on the ovaries or testes."},{"text":"Luteinising hormone.","correct":false,"explanation":"Luteinising hormone is released by the anterior pituitary in response to hypothalamic GnRH. The hypothalamus itself releases gonadotrophin-releasing hormone during puberty."},{"text":"Follicle-stimulating hormone.","correct":false,"explanation":"Follicle-stimulating hormone is a pituitary gonadotrophin, not the hypothalamic signal. The hypothalamus releases gonadotrophin-releasing hormone, which stimulates pituitary hormone secretion."},{"text":"Testosterone.","correct":false,"explanation":"Testosterone is mainly produced by the testes after stimulation through the HPG axis. The hypothalamus initiates this pathway by releasing gonadotrophin-releasing hormone."}]},{"id":"dddcc22b-b7cf-49db-93dc-729c0b17cce8","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"In the HPG axis, what does gonadotrophin-releasing hormone stimulate the pituitary to release?","back":"Luteinising hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Luteinising hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone.","correct":true,"explanation":"Gonadotrophin-releasing hormone acts on the pituitary, causing it to secrete luteinising hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone, which subsequently act on the gonads."},{"text":"Testosterone and oestrogen.","correct":false,"explanation":"Testosterone and oestrogen are sex hormones released mainly by the gonads, not gonadotrophins released by the pituitary. Gonadotrophin-releasing hormone stimulates luteinising hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone."},{"text":"Cortisol and adrenaline.","correct":false,"explanation":"Cortisol and adrenaline are associated with physiological stress responses rather than pituitary activity in the HPG axis. The pituitary releases luteinising hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone."},{"text":"Oxytocin and prolactin.","correct":false,"explanation":"Oxytocin and prolactin contribute to processes such as childbirth, lactation and bonding, but they are not the two gonadotrophins. The correct hormones are luteinising hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone."}]},{"id":"73345b33-0f11-46b7-8410-282a0df8f11e","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"In the HPG axis, what do luteinising hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone stimulate?","back":"The gonads release sex hormones.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The gonads release sex hormones.","correct":true,"explanation":"Luteinising hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone travel from the pituitary to the gonads, stimulating the ovaries or testes to release sex hormones."},{"text":"The adrenal glands release stress hormones.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses the HPG axis with the stress response involving the adrenal glands. Luteinising hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone act on the gonads, causing sex-hormone release."},{"text":"The hypothalamus releases gonadotrophin-releasing hormone.","correct":false,"explanation":"The hypothalamus releases gonadotrophin-releasing hormone earlier in the HPG pathway; it is not stimulated by luteinising hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone. These hormones stimulate the gonads."},{"text":"The pancreas releases blood-glucose hormones.","correct":false,"explanation":"The pancreas releases insulin and glucagon to regulate blood glucose, not in response to these pituitary gonadotrophins. Luteinising hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone stimulate the gonads."}]},{"id":"76705f7b-2a1d-40c8-a9fa-a61bf92cad77","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What are voice changes, breast development, body hair and body-shape changes examples of?","back":"Secondary sex characteristics.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Secondary sex characteristics.","correct":true,"explanation":"These physical features emerge during puberty but are not reproductive organs themselves, so they are classified as secondary sex characteristics."},{"text":"Primary sex characteristics.","correct":false,"explanation":"Primary sex characteristics are reproductive structures directly involved in reproduction, such as the ovaries and testes. Voice, breast, hair and body-shape changes are secondary sex characteristics."},{"text":"Cognitive developmental changes.","correct":false,"explanation":"Cognitive development concerns changes in thinking and reasoning rather than pubertal physical appearance. The listed bodily changes are secondary sex characteristics."},{"text":"Emotional attachment behaviours.","correct":false,"explanation":"Attachment behaviours concern emotional bonds between people, not physical changes occurring at puberty. Voice, breast, hair and body-shape changes are secondary sex characteristics."}]},{"id":"98e35449-9cd6-469e-ae06-be6a224afa33","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What did Hines et al. (2002) find in girls with congenital adrenal hyperplasia?","back":"Prenatal androgens were associated with more male-typical toy preferences.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Prenatal androgens were associated with more male-typical toy preferences.","correct":true,"explanation":"Girls with congenital adrenal hyperplasia experience unusually high prenatal androgen exposure and showed increased preferences for toys conventionally associated with boys, supporting a hormonal influence on behaviour."},{"text":"Prenatal androgens were associated with more female-typical toy preferences.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the reported association. Greater prenatal androgen exposure in girls with congenital adrenal hyperplasia was linked to more male-typical, rather than female-typical, toy preferences."},{"text":"Prenatal androgens were associated with fewer male-typical toy preferences.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the direction of the finding. Hines et al. found that prenatal androgens were associated with more male-typical toy preferences among girls with congenital adrenal hyperplasia."},{"text":"Prenatal androgens were associated with stronger mother-infant bonding behaviours.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses androgen research with research into oxytocin and bonding. Hines et al. associated prenatal androgen exposure in girls with more male-typical toy preferences."}]},{"id":"52ed3b94-154d-415a-9e57-4483663ecba1","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What did Feldman et al. (2007) associate oxytocin levels with?","back":"Mother-infant bonding behaviours.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Mother-infant bonding behaviours.","correct":true,"explanation":"Feldman et al. found that maternal oxytocin levels were associated with behaviours supporting the emotional bond between mothers and their infants."},{"text":"Male-typical toy preferences.","correct":false,"explanation":"Male-typical toy preferences were investigated in research on prenatal androgens, not Feldman et al.’s oxytocin study. Feldman et al. associated oxytocin with mother-infant bonding behaviours."},{"text":"Adolescent risk-taking behaviours.","correct":false,"explanation":"Adolescent risk-taking is more commonly linked to developmental and social changes, not the finding from this oxytocin research. Feldman et al. associated oxytocin with mother-infant bonding behaviours."},{"text":"Infant language-development scores.","correct":false,"explanation":"The study did not identify language-development scores as the behavioural correlate of oxytocin. Feldman et al. associated oxytocin levels with mother-infant bonding behaviours."}]},{"id":"60a25d0e-7144-417a-afd4-e85fc6ec65a2","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"The [ ] regulates stress responses; [ ] is involved in stress.","back":"The HPA axis regulates stress responses; cortisol is involved in stress.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The HPA axis regulates stress responses; cortisol is involved in stress.","correct":true,"explanation":"The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis coordinates the hormonal stress response, culminating in cortisol release from the adrenal cortex to help the body respond to stressors."},{"text":"The HPG axis regulates stress responses; cortisol is involved in stress.","correct":false,"explanation":"This substitutes the reproductive HPG axis for the stress-related pathway. The HPA axis regulates stress responses, while cortisol is a key hormone involved in that process."},{"text":"The HPA axis regulates stress responses; oxytocin is involved in stress.","correct":false,"explanation":"Oxytocin is primarily associated with social bonding and reproductive processes in this context. The HPA axis regulates stress responses, and cortisol is the relevant stress hormone."},{"text":"The HPG axis regulates stress responses; testosterone is involved in stress.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses the reproductive pathway and a sex hormone with the stress system. The HPA axis regulates stress responses, and cortisol is centrally involved in stress."}]},{"id":"0278e4bb-9b26-4d8f-aa77-e855b7e6e2a2","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why are hormonal explanations often more objective than self-report?","back":"Hormones can be measured using blood or saliva samples.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Hormones can be measured using blood or saliva samples.","correct":true,"explanation":"Blood and saliva samples provide quantifiable biological data about hormone levels, reducing reliance on participants’ subjective memories, interpretations or willingness to report honestly."},{"text":"Hormones can be identified from participants’ facial expressions.","correct":false,"explanation":"Facial expressions do not provide a direct or reliable measure of hormone concentration and require subjective interpretation. Hormones can instead be measured objectively using blood or saliva samples."},{"text":"Hormones can be estimated using participants’ questionnaire responses.","correct":false,"explanation":"Questionnaire estimates remain self-report data and are vulnerable to recall errors and social desirability. Greater objectivity comes from measuring hormones directly in blood or saliva samples."},{"text":"Hormones can be observed through participants’ reported emotions.","correct":false,"explanation":"Reported emotions are subjective and cannot directly reveal hormone concentrations. Hormonal explanations can be more objective because hormones are measurable using blood or saliva samples."}]},{"id":"7c3b2555-4e24-4003-a913-acae00be9009","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why is correlational hormone evidence limited?","back":"It cannot prove cause and effect.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It cannot prove cause and effect.","correct":true,"explanation":"A correlation shows that hormone levels and behaviour vary together, but it cannot establish whether the hormone caused the behaviour or whether another variable influenced both."},{"text":"It cannot identify any relationship.","correct":false,"explanation":"Correlational evidence can identify the strength and direction of an association between variables. Its limitation is that this association cannot demonstrate cause and effect."},{"text":"It cannot measure hormone levels accurately.","correct":false,"explanation":"Hormone levels can be measured accurately through biological samples, although measurement procedures may still have limitations. The defining problem with correlation is its inability to prove cause and effect."},{"text":"It cannot include more than one variable.","correct":false,"explanation":"Correlational research necessarily examines relationships between at least two variables and may include several. Its key limitation is that the resulting association cannot prove cause and effect."}]}]}],"examCountdown":{"examDate":"2027-05-10","paperLabel":"Paper 1"},"heading":"Developmental psychology","title":"Developmental psychology Flashcards","topbar":{"backHref":"/as-level/psychology/edexcel/flashcards"},"topicSidebar":"$L38"}]}],"topicId":"2a163462-3370-5654-9e20-414b93807e68","walled":"$L39"}],"$L3a","$L3b"]