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In developmental psychology, development is defined as systematic change occurring over time."},{"text":"context","correct":false,"explanation":"Context can influence development, but it is not the dimension over which development is defined. The correct term is time because development involves systematic temporal change."},{"text":"distance","correct":false,"explanation":"Distance measures physical separation rather than developmental progression. Developmental psychologists study systematic changes over time, whether across childhood or throughout the lifespan."}]},{"id":"ac54ff43-4609-4854-a8fd-d84be933f9ba","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"If explaining a child’s behaviour using learning theory, what should you look for?","back":"Consequences and models in the child’s environment.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Consequences and models in the child’s environment.","correct":true,"explanation":"Learning theory explains behaviour through environmental experiences. Operant conditioning emphasises consequences, while social learning theory emphasises observing and imitating models."},{"text":"Conflicts and fixations in the child’s unconscious.","correct":false,"explanation":"Unconscious conflicts and fixations belong to the psychodynamic approach. Learning theory instead directs attention to consequences and models in the child’s environment."},{"text":"Schemas and expectations in the child’s thinking.","correct":false,"explanation":"Schemas and expectations are cognitive explanations focusing on internal mental processes. Learning theory focuses instead on environmental consequences and models that shape behaviour."},{"text":"Genes and hormones in the child’s biology.","correct":false,"explanation":"Genes and hormones are central to biological explanations rather than learning theory. A learning explanation examines consequences and models present in the child’s environment."}]},{"id":"ca463bdc-ce65-48a8-a449-e6723c15ecc0","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Operant conditioning is associated with [ ]; social learning theory is associated with [ ].","back":"Operant conditioning is associated with B. F. Skinner; social learning theory is associated with Albert Bandura.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Operant conditioning is associated with B. F. Skinner; social learning theory is associated with Albert Bandura.","correct":true,"explanation":"Skinner developed influential accounts of operant conditioning through reinforcement and punishment, while Bandura developed social learning theory around observation, imitation and modelling."},{"text":"Operant conditioning is associated with Albert Bandura; social learning theory is associated with B. F. Skinner.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the two psychologists. B. F. Skinner is associated with operant conditioning, whereas Albert Bandura is associated with social learning theory."},{"text":"Operant conditioning is associated with Ivan Pavlov; social learning theory is associated with Albert Bandura.","correct":false,"explanation":"Pavlov is associated with classical, not operant, conditioning. Operant conditioning is linked to B. F. Skinner, while Albert Bandura is correctly linked to social learning theory."},{"text":"Operant conditioning is associated with B. F. Skinner; social learning theory is associated with Jean Piaget.","correct":false,"explanation":"Piaget developed a theory of cognitive development rather than social learning theory. Skinner is associated with operant conditioning, and Bandura with social learning theory."}]},{"id":"765cfc38-5082-47a9-acfd-82c3dcf80566","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"A child says “please”, receives praise, and says it more often. What process is this?","back":"Positive reinforcement.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Positive reinforcement.","correct":true,"explanation":"Praise is a desirable consequence added after saying “please”. Because this addition makes the behaviour more frequent, it is positive reinforcement."},{"text":"Negative reinforcement.","correct":false,"explanation":"Negative reinforcement increases behaviour by removing something unpleasant, not by giving praise. Adding praise to increase saying “please” is positive reinforcement."},{"text":"Positive punishment.","correct":false,"explanation":"Positive punishment adds an unpleasant consequence to reduce behaviour. Here, desirable praise is added and the behaviour increases, so the process is positive reinforcement."},{"text":"Negative punishment.","correct":false,"explanation":"Negative punishment removes something desirable to reduce behaviour. The parent instead adds desirable praise, increasing the behaviour through positive reinforcement."}]},{"id":"180a3d09-697c-4f8b-947a-12dac7c9671a","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"In operant conditioning, [ ] increases behaviour; [ ] decreases behaviour.","back":"In operant conditioning, reinforcement increases behaviour; punishment decreases behaviour.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"In operant conditioning, reinforcement increases behaviour; punishment decreases behaviour.","correct":true,"explanation":"Reinforcement makes the behaviour it follows more likely to recur, whereas punishment makes the behaviour it follows less likely to recur."},{"text":"In operant conditioning, punishment increases behaviour; reinforcement decreases behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the effects of the two types of consequence. Reinforcement increases the likelihood of behaviour, while punishment decreases its likelihood."},{"text":"In operant conditioning, reinforcement increases behaviour; extinction decreases behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"Extinction can reduce learned behaviour when reinforcement stops, but it is not the required contrasting consequence here. Operant conditioning defines punishment as a consequence that decreases behaviour."},{"text":"In operant conditioning, modelling increases behaviour; punishment decreases behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"Modelling belongs primarily to social learning theory rather than being the operant consequence that strengthens behaviour. Reinforcement increases behaviour, while punishment decreases it."}]},{"id":"e914dd7a-b89e-4947-9727-ca03e835a6fb","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Positive reinforcement adds [ ]; negative reinforcement removes [ ].","back":"Positive reinforcement adds something desirable; negative reinforcement removes something unpleasant.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Positive reinforcement adds something desirable; negative reinforcement removes something unpleasant.","correct":true,"explanation":"Both forms of reinforcement increase behaviour. Positive reinforcement does so by adding a desirable consequence, while negative reinforcement removes an unpleasant condition."},{"text":"Positive reinforcement adds something unpleasant; negative reinforcement removes something desirable.","correct":false,"explanation":"These consequences describe positive and negative punishment, which reduce behaviour. Reinforcement instead adds something desirable or removes something unpleasant to increase behaviour."},{"text":"Positive reinforcement adds something desirable; negative reinforcement removes something desirable.","correct":false,"explanation":"Removing something desirable is negative punishment, not negative reinforcement. Negative reinforcement removes something unpleasant, while positive reinforcement adds something desirable."},{"text":"Positive reinforcement adds something unpleasant; negative reinforcement removes something unpleasant.","correct":false,"explanation":"The second relationship is correct, but adding something unpleasant is positive punishment. Positive reinforcement must add something desirable so that behaviour becomes more likely."}]},{"id":"b86a28bb-7bc5-4d93-a32d-13c93bcfa836","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why is negative reinforcement not punishment?","back":"Negative reinforcement increases behaviour by removing something unpleasant.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Negative reinforcement increases behaviour by removing something unpleasant.","correct":true,"explanation":"Reinforcement always increases the likelihood of behaviour. It is called negative because an unpleasant stimulus is removed, not because the behaviour is punished."},{"text":"Negative reinforcement decreases behaviour by removing something unpleasant.","correct":false,"explanation":"The word “negative” refers to removing a stimulus, not decreasing behaviour. Negative reinforcement increases behaviour by removing something unpleasant."},{"text":"Negative reinforcement increases behaviour by adding something desirable.","correct":false,"explanation":"Adding something desirable to increase behaviour is positive reinforcement. Negative reinforcement also increases behaviour, but it does so by removing something unpleasant."},{"text":"Negative reinforcement decreases behaviour by adding something unpleasant.","correct":false,"explanation":"Adding something unpleasant to decrease behaviour is positive punishment. Negative reinforcement instead increases behaviour by removing an unpleasant stimulus."}]},{"id":"4cd81a38-88e6-46dd-9c12-4701af60aefe","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"A parent removes screen time after rule-breaking, and rule-breaking decreases. What is this?","back":"Punishment.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Punishment.","correct":true,"explanation":"Removing screen time is negative punishment because a desirable stimulus is taken away after rule-breaking, causing that behaviour to decrease."},{"text":"Negative reinforcement.","correct":false,"explanation":"Negative reinforcement removes something unpleasant to increase behaviour. Here, something desirable is removed and rule-breaking decreases, making it punishment, specifically negative punishment."},{"text":"Extinction.","correct":false,"explanation":"Extinction occurs when reinforcement that previously maintained behaviour is withheld. Deliberately removing screen time as a consequence is punishment, specifically negative punishment."},{"text":"Modelling.","correct":false,"explanation":"Modelling involves observing and imitating another person’s behaviour. This example uses a consequence to reduce rule-breaking, so it is punishment."}]},{"id":"184e60b2-4ad6-4293-86f5-dc2bc6793404","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What is one key limitation of punishment in development?","back":"It may not teach replacement behaviour.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It may not teach replacement behaviour.","correct":true,"explanation":"Punishment may suppress an unwanted response, but it does not necessarily demonstrate or reinforce a suitable alternative for the child to perform instead."},{"text":"It only works when used inconsistently.","correct":false,"explanation":"Punishment can affect behaviour even when delivered consistently, so inevitability is not the key limitation. The limitation is that it may not teach an appropriate replacement behaviour."},{"text":"It always reinforces unwanted behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"Punishment aims to reduce rather than reinforce unwanted behaviour. Its key developmental limitation is that reducing a response does not teach the child what to do instead."},{"text":"It prevents children observing behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"Punishment does not inevitably prevent children from observing others. The key limitation is that it may suppress behaviour without teaching a constructive replacement response."}]},{"id":"0a7f6848-e977-4c8f-9e8a-ea9b6093dc17","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How does shaping build a complex developmental behaviour?","back":"Small steps are reinforced until the full behaviour develops.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Small steps are reinforced until the full behaviour develops.","correct":true,"explanation":"Shaping reinforces successive approximations towards a target behaviour. Each achievable step is rewarded until the learner can perform the complete, more complex behaviour."},{"text":"Small steps are punished until the full behaviour develops.","correct":false,"explanation":"Punishing early attempts would discourage progress rather than shape the target response. Shaping works by reinforcing small steps that increasingly resemble the full behaviour."},{"text":"Small steps are observed until the full behaviour develops.","correct":false,"explanation":"Observation is central to social learning theory, but shaping specifically uses reinforcement. Small successive steps are reinforced until the complete target behaviour develops."},{"text":"The final response is reinforced until the full behaviour develops.","correct":false,"explanation":"Shaping does not wait for the complete behaviour before providing reinforcement. It rewards manageable approximations, allowing small steps to build progressively into the full response."}]},{"id":"29420ee5-d2f6-4f69-9002-962c139c947a","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"According to social learning theory, how can children learn without direct reward or punishment?","back":"By observing and imitating models.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"By observing and imitating models.","correct":true,"explanation":"Social learning theory proposes that children can acquire behaviour by watching models and then imitating what they observed, even without receiving direct consequences themselves."},{"text":"By using trial and error.","correct":false,"explanation":"Trial and error involves directly experiencing consequences, which the question excludes. Social learning without direct reward or punishment occurs by observing and imitating models."},{"text":"By inheriting automatic reflexes.","correct":false,"explanation":"Inherited reflexes are biologically determined responses, not socially learned behaviours. Social learning theory explains acquisition without direct consequences through observing and imitating models."},{"text":"By associating two stimuli.","correct":false,"explanation":"Classical conditioning depends on associations between stimuli rather than modelling. In social learning theory, children can learn without direct consequences by observing and imitating models."}]},{"id":"8c60f5a7-7cd0-45b4-a4a2-239f4eee4c3a","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"A child observes an older sibling whose behaviour is later copied. In SLT, what is the sibling?","back":"A model.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A model.","correct":true,"explanation":"In social learning theory, a model is the person whose behaviour is observed and may subsequently be imitated by the observer."},{"text":"A reinforcer.","correct":false,"explanation":"The sibling is not a reinforcer, because a reinforcer is a consequence that increases behaviour. The observed person whose actions are copied is a model."},{"text":"An observer.","correct":false,"explanation":"The child watching the behaviour is the observer, not the older sibling. The sibling demonstrates the copied behaviour and is therefore the model."},{"text":"A mediator.","correct":false,"explanation":"Mediational processes are mental stages such as attention and retention, rather than people. The sibling whose behaviour is observed and copied is a model."}]},{"id":"186321f0-14af-4f20-b8ae-ee07ba82b9b1","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why does identification make imitation more likely?","back":"The child feels similar to, or wants to be like, the model.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The child feels similar to, or wants to be like, the model.","correct":true,"explanation":"Identification creates a psychological connection with the model. Perceived similarity or a desire to resemble that person increases the likelihood that the child will imitate them."},{"text":"The child feels afraid of, or wants to avoid, the model.","correct":false,"explanation":"Fear can produce compliance, but it does not describe identification. Identification increases imitation because the child perceives similarity to the model or wants to resemble them."},{"text":"The child receives rewards from, or is punished by, the model.","correct":false,"explanation":"Receiving a direct reward describes direct reinforcement, not identification. Identification operates because the child feels similar to the model or aspires to be like them."},{"text":"The child believes behaviour is inherited rather than learned from the model.","correct":false,"explanation":"Believing the behaviour is innate would not explain imitation of a particular person. Identification increases copying through perceived similarity or aspiration towards the model."}]},{"id":"23bcb795-077f-4561-8439-9927406f740b","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"A child sees a peer praised for sharing, then shares more. What process is this?","back":"Vicarious reinforcement.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Vicarious reinforcement.","correct":true,"explanation":"Vicarious reinforcement occurs when someone observes another person being rewarded for a behaviour, making the observer more likely to reproduce that behaviour."},{"text":"Direct reinforcement.","correct":false,"explanation":"Direct reinforcement would require the child to receive praise personally after sharing. Here, observing a peer’s reward increases imitation, which is vicarious reinforcement."},{"text":"Vicarious punishment.","correct":false,"explanation":"Vicarious punishment involves observing another person receive an unpleasant consequence, reducing imitation. Seeing a peer praised and then copying them demonstrates vicarious reinforcement."},{"text":"Negative reinforcement.","correct":false,"explanation":"Negative reinforcement increases behaviour by removing something unpleasant. The child instead observes another person receiving praise, so the process is vicarious reinforcement."}]},{"id":"77f41b69-487a-487a-ba3b-e7f97fac53b4","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"In Bandura’s mediational processes, [ ] means noticing behaviour; [ ] means remembering it.","back":"In Bandura’s mediational processes, attention means noticing behaviour; retention means remembering it.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"In Bandura’s mediational processes, attention means noticing behaviour; retention means remembering it.","correct":true,"explanation":"Attention is the process of noticing a model’s behaviour, while retention involves storing or remembering that observed behaviour for possible later imitation."},{"text":"In Bandura’s mediational processes, retention means noticing behaviour; retention means remembering it.","correct":false,"explanation":"Retention refers to remembering observed behaviour, not initially noticing it. The correct sequence is attention for noticing and retention for remembering."},{"text":"In Bandura’s mediational processes, attention means noticing behaviour; reproduction means remembering it.","correct":false,"explanation":"Reproduction means being physically or cognitively able to perform the behaviour, not remembering it. Attention means noticing, while retention means remembering."},{"text":"In Bandura’s mediational processes, motivation means noticing behaviour; attention means remembering it.","correct":false,"explanation":"Motivation supplies a reason to imitate, while attention involves noticing behaviour. Retention, rather than attention, is the process of remembering what was observed."}]},{"id":"37f56e67-4be4-45cd-9299-d4e796d35fd0","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"In Bandura’s mediational processes, [ ] means being able to perform it; [ ] means having a reason to copy it.","back":"In Bandura’s mediational processes, reproduction means being able to perform it; motivation means having a reason to copy it.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"In Bandura’s mediational processes, reproduction means being able to perform it; motivation means having a reason to copy it.","correct":true,"explanation":"Reproduction is the ability to carry out an observed behaviour, while motivation is the learner’s reason or incentive for choosing to imitate it."},{"text":"In Bandura’s mediational processes, retention means being able to perform it; motivation means having a reason to copy it.","correct":false,"explanation":"Retention means remembering the observed behaviour, not possessing the ability to perform it. Reproduction concerns ability, while motivation provides a reason to copy."},{"text":"In Bandura’s mediational processes, reproduction means being able to perform it; attention means having a reason to copy it.","correct":false,"explanation":"Attention means noticing a model’s behaviour, not having an incentive to copy it. Reproduction concerns performance ability, whereas motivation supplies the reason for imitation."},{"text":"In Bandura’s mediational processes, motivation means being able to perform it; retention means having a reason to copy it.","correct":false,"explanation":"Motivation is the reason to imitate, rather than the ability to perform, and retention means remembering. The correct processes are reproduction for ability and motivation for incentive."}]},{"id":"28df0d78-8fc5-40e3-a64a-aaa838323faa","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why does Bandura, Ross and Ross (1961) support social learning theory?","back":"Children imitated aggression after observing an aggressive model.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Children imitated aggression after observing an aggressive model.","correct":true,"explanation":"Social learning theory predicts that children learn behaviours by observing and imitating models. Copying the adult’s aggressive actions therefore supports observational learning."},{"text":"Children imitated aggression after receiving rewards for good behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"Direct rewards would demonstrate operant conditioning rather than observational learning. The study supports social learning theory because children imitated aggression after observing an aggressive adult model."},{"text":"Children developed aggression through natural biological maturation.","correct":false,"explanation":"A spontaneous age-related change would support maturation rather than social learning. Bandura found that children copied aggressive behaviour they had observed in an adult model."},{"text":"Children reduced aggression after playing independently with toys.","correct":false,"explanation":"Reducing aggression without observing a model would not support learning through imitation. The evidence was that children reproduced aggressive actions demonstrated by an adult."}]},{"id":"8f6b4ada-f8e7-4232-96ca-0b023b47bb09","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why may the Bobo doll study have limited ecological validity?","back":"

Artificial setting with an unusual task.
Hitting a doll may differ from real aggression.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Artificial setting with an unusual task.
Hitting a doll may differ from real aggression.

","correct":true,"explanation":"The laboratory setting and unusual Bobo doll task differ from children’s everyday experiences. Consequently, their behaviour may not represent aggression in real-life situations."},{"text":"

Standardised setting with a controlled task.
Consistent procedures increased study reliability.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Standardisation and control concern reliability and internal validity, not limited ecological validity. The limitation arises because the artificial setting and doll-hitting task may not reflect real aggression."},{"text":"

Parental consent may not ensure assent.
Right to withdraw may be restricted.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Consent and withdrawal are ethical considerations rather than measures of ecological validity. Ecological validity is limited because hitting a doll in a laboratory differs from everyday aggression."},{"text":"

Small sample from one nursery.
Young children may differ from adults.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Sample size and participant characteristics concern population validity and generalisability. Ecological validity was limited by the artificial laboratory and the unrealistic act of hitting a doll."}]},{"id":"8f1db0f0-bd28-472e-b5a2-53c8f08269a3","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which ethical issue is raised by exposing children to aggressive models?","back":"Protection from harm.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Protection from harm.","correct":true,"explanation":"Watching aggressive adults could cause distress or encourage children to imitate harmful behaviour. Researchers therefore had a duty to protect participants from psychological and behavioural harm."},{"text":"Protection of confidentiality.","correct":false,"explanation":"Confidentiality concerns protecting participants’ identities and personal data, not the effects of viewing aggression. Exposure to an aggressive model primarily raises protection-from-harm concerns."},{"text":"Avoidance of deception.","correct":false,"explanation":"Deception concerns withholding or misrepresenting the study’s purpose. The particular issue created by showing children aggression is protection from harm because it may distress them or alter behaviour."},{"text":"The right to withdraw.","correct":false,"explanation":"The right to withdraw concerns participants’ freedom to leave a study. 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Reward charts instead positively reinforce small approximations towards the target behaviour, using shaping."},{"text":"They ignore small steps towards a target behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"Ignoring desired progress would withhold reinforcement and could extinguish the behaviour. Reward charts work by reinforcing each small step towards the target."},{"text":"They model small steps towards a target behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"Modelling is an observational-learning technique in which someone demonstrates behaviour. Reward charts use operant conditioning by reinforcing the child’s small steps towards the target."}]},{"id":"a0994988-f167-4bb6-bc18-c9ef9d905280","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why can learning theories be criticised as deterministic?","back":"They present behaviour as controlled by reinforcement history or social environment.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They present behaviour as controlled by reinforcement history or social environment.","correct":true,"explanation":"Learning theories explain behaviour as the predictable outcome of past reinforcement and environmental influences. This leaves little or no role for individual choice or free will."},{"text":"They present behaviour as freely chosen despite reinforcement history or social environment.","correct":false,"explanation":"Treating behaviour as freely chosen is consistent with free will, not determinism. Learning theories are criticised for portraying reinforcement history and social surroundings as controlling behaviour."},{"text":"They present behaviour as controlled by inherited genes or nervous-system structures.","correct":false,"explanation":"Inherited genes and nervous-system structures belong to biological explanations rather than learning theories. Learning approaches are environmentally deterministic because reinforcement and social experience are seen as controlling behaviour."},{"text":"They present behaviour as controlled by unconscious conflicts or childhood fixations.","correct":false,"explanation":"Unconscious conflicts and childhood fixations are features of psychodynamic explanations. Learning theories are called deterministic because they attribute behavioural control to reinforcement history or the social environment."}]},{"id":"3deee975-c713-4283-b7ef-52ee7776345e","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What unwanted effect can harsh punishment have through social learning?","back":"It may model aggression for children to copy.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It may model aggression for children to copy.","correct":true,"explanation":"A punishing adult demonstrates aggression while trying to discourage it. Through observation and imitation, children may learn to reproduce the same aggressive behaviour."},{"text":"It may eliminate aggression for children permanently.","correct":false,"explanation":"Harsh punishment may suppress behaviour temporarily, but this is a direct consequence rather than unwanted observational learning. Social learning predicts that the adult may model aggression for imitation."},{"text":"It may teach moral reasoning for children to apply.","correct":false,"explanation":"Moral reasoning develops through cognitive and social processes, not simply by observing harsh punishment. The social-learning risk is that children copy the adult’s aggressive conduct."},{"text":"It may model calm behaviour for children to copy.","correct":false,"explanation":"Harsh punishment demonstrates coercive or aggressive conduct rather than calm conflict resolution. Children may observationally learn and imitate the aggression used by the punishing adult."}]}]}],"examCountdown":{"examDate":"2027-05-10","paperLabel":"Paper 1"},"heading":"Developmental psychology","title":"Developmental psychology Flashcards","topbar":{"backHref":"/as-level/psychology/edexcel/flashcards"},"topicSidebar":"$L90"}]}],"topicId":"4e801d24-0cad-50be-a22f-4de2bd1148fd","walled":"$L91"}],"$L92","$L93"]