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it mainly measures verbal short-term memory associated with the phonological loop."},{"text":"Visuospatial short-term memory.","correct":false,"explanation":"Visuospatial short-term memory concerns temporary visual and spatial information. Digit span mainly measures verbal short-term memory because participants retain and rehearse spoken numbers."},{"text":"Procedural long-term memory.","correct":false,"explanation":"Procedural long-term memory stores learned skills and habits, not briefly presented number sequences. Digit span mainly measures verbal short-term memory."},{"text":"Episodic long-term memory.","correct":false,"explanation":"Episodic long-term memory stores personally experienced events. Digit span instead tests verbal short-term memory by requiring immediate recall of spoken digits."}]},{"id":"0e300d9f-a0cb-49a2-9217-a45a86816cb7","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What does a participant’s digit span score represent?","back":"The longest digit sequence they correctly repeat immediately.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The longest digit sequence they correctly repeat immediately.","correct":true,"explanation":"A participant’s span is the maximum sequence length they can reproduce correctly straight after hearing it, indicating their verbal short-term memory capacity."},{"text":"The total number of digits they correctly repeat immediately.","correct":false,"explanation":"Adding every correctly recalled digit confuses a cumulative total with a span score. The score is the longest digit sequence correctly repeated immediately."},{"text":"The shortest digit sequence they correctly repeat immediately.","correct":false,"explanation":"Using the shortest successful sequence would reveal little because easier sequences are usually recalled. The score is the longest digit sequence repeated correctly immediately."},{"text":"The longest digit sequence they correctly recognise afterwards.","correct":false,"explanation":"Recognition afterwards measures a different memory process and timing. Digit span is the longest sequence that the participant correctly repeats immediately after hearing it."}]},{"id":"96532a13-0cb1-4627-b2e7-baba29902b90","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why is digit span linked to the phonological loop?","back":"It requires temporary storage and rehearsal of spoken digits.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It requires temporary storage and rehearsal of spoken digits.","correct":true,"explanation":"The phonological loop briefly stores speech-based material and maintains it through rehearsal. Digit span uses these processes because participants must retain and repeat spoken digits."},{"text":"It requires permanent storage and retrieval of spoken digits.","correct":false,"explanation":"Permanent storage and later retrieval describe long-term memory rather than the phonological loop. Digit span requires temporary storage and rehearsal of spoken digits."},{"text":"It requires temporary storage and rehearsal of visual locations.","correct":false,"explanation":"Temporary memory for visual locations primarily involves the visuospatial sketchpad. Digit span is linked to the phonological loop because it stores and rehearses spoken digits."},{"text":"It requires meaningful organisation and rehearsal of personal events.","correct":false,"explanation":"Personal events are associated with episodic long-term memory, not the phonological loop. Digit span depends on temporarily storing and rehearsing spoken digits."}]},{"id":"9c136522-0fe8-479b-a341-7ba550712c1d","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What was Sebastián and Hernández-Gil’s main aim?","back":"To investigate the developmental pattern of digit span in a Spanish population.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"To investigate the developmental pattern of digit span in a Spanish population.","correct":true,"explanation":"The researchers examined how digit span changed across childhood and adolescence, establishing its developmental pattern within a Spanish-speaking population."},{"text":"To investigate the gender differences in digit span in a Spanish population.","correct":false,"explanation":"The study was not primarily designed to compare males and females. Its main aim was to investigate the developmental pattern of digit span in a Spanish population."},{"text":"To investigate the effect of rehearsal on digit span in a Spanish population.","correct":false,"explanation":"Rehearsal helps explain digit span theoretically, but it was not the manipulated focus. The study investigated the developmental pattern of digit span in a Spanish population."},{"text":"To investigate the developmental pattern of visual memory in a Spanish population.","correct":false,"explanation":"The researchers measured immediate recall of spoken digit sequences rather than visual memory. Their aim was to investigate the developmental pattern of digit span in a Spanish population."}]},{"id":"374da82d-e2fe-4a30-b0d8-c4a09a573f2d","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Sebastián and Hernández-Gil used a [ ] sample from [ ].","back":"Sebastián and Hernández-Gil used a Spanish-speaking sample from childhood into adolescence.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Sebastián and Hernández-Gil used a Spanish-speaking sample from childhood into adolescence.","correct":true,"explanation":"The researchers tested Spanish-speaking participants across childhood and adolescence, allowing them to compare digit span between age groups during this developmental period."},{"text":"Sebastián and Hernández-Gil used a English-speaking sample from childhood into adolescence.","correct":false,"explanation":"Confusing this study with English-language digit-span research gives the wrong population. Sebastián and Hernández-Gil used a Spanish-speaking sample covering childhood into adolescence."},{"text":"Sebastián and Hernández-Gil used a Spanish-speaking sample from adulthood into old age.","correct":false,"explanation":"The study did not examine adult ageing or decline in memory. It used a Spanish-speaking sample spanning childhood into adolescence to investigate development."},{"text":"Sebastián and Hernández-Gil used a French-speaking sample from infancy into childhood.","correct":false,"explanation":"Both the language group and developmental period are mistaken. The sample was Spanish-speaking and covered childhood into adolescence, not French-speaking infants and children."}]},{"id":"27dbab82-a2cf-4424-9150-7544bd34a74f","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What does cross-sectional mean in this study?","back":"Different age groups were compared at one point in time.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Different age groups were compared at one point in time.","correct":true,"explanation":"A cross-sectional design compares participants of different ages during the same study period, rather than following the same individuals as they grow older."},{"text":"The same age group was compared at several points in time.","correct":false,"explanation":"Testing the same group repeatedly describes a longitudinal design. Cross-sectional research compares different age groups at one point in time."},{"text":"Different memory tasks were compared at one point in time.","correct":false,"explanation":"Comparing tasks does not define a cross-sectional developmental design. In this study, different age groups were compared at one point in time."},{"text":"Different language groups were compared at one point in time.","correct":false,"explanation":"The study used a Spanish-speaking population rather than comparing languages. Cross-sectional means that different age groups were compared at one point in time."}]},{"id":"32071eea-fb1f-4401-b2b1-40f3fba00cf7","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What did participants do in the digit span task?","back":"They repeated heard digit sequences in the same order.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They repeated heard digit sequences in the same order.","correct":true,"explanation":"Participants had to reproduce each spoken sequence without rearranging its digits. Accurate immediate serial recall therefore required repetition in the same order."},{"text":"They repeated heard digit sequences in the reverse order.","correct":false,"explanation":"Reverse-order recall describes a backward digit-span task and adds manipulation demands. Here, participants repeated the heard digit sequences in the same order."},{"text":"They repeated seen digit sequences in the same order.","correct":false,"explanation":"Treating the task as visual presentation misses its link to the phonological loop. Participants heard the digit sequences and repeated them in the same order."},{"text":"They arranged heard digit sequences in numerical order.","correct":false,"explanation":"Sorting digits numerically would test manipulation rather than straightforward serial recall. Participants repeated each heard sequence in the same order as presented."}]},{"id":"cfd2a885-d786-413d-8014-93ac2d02697c","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What happened to digit sequences as the task progressed?","back":"They became longer.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They became longer.","correct":true,"explanation":"Sequence length increased as the task progressed, making recall progressively harder and allowing the participant’s maximum digit span to be identified."},{"text":"They became shorter.","correct":false,"explanation":"Shortening the sequences would make later trials easier and would not establish maximum capacity. The digit sequences became longer as the task progressed."},{"text":"They became quieter.","correct":false,"explanation":"Changing volume would test hearing conditions rather than memory span. Difficulty increased because the digit sequences became longer as the task progressed."},{"text":"They became faster.","correct":false,"explanation":"Increasing presentation speed is a different way of changing task difficulty. In this procedure, the sequences became longer so that digit span could be measured."}]},{"id":"1ae6a449-5945-41a2-9d92-757743b90e2e","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What was the main finding of the study?","back":"Average digit span increased with age.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Average digit span increased with age.","correct":true,"explanation":"Older children achieved higher average digit spans than younger children, showing that verbal short-term memory capacity develops progressively with age."},{"text":"Average digit span decreased with age.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the observed relationship between age and performance. Average digit span increased with age, indicating greater verbal short-term memory capacity among older children."},{"text":"Average digit span remained stable with age.","correct":false,"explanation":"Treating memory capacity as stable overlooks the age differences found in the study. Average digit span increased with age as verbal short-term memory developed."},{"text":"Average digit span varied randomly with age.","correct":false,"explanation":"The results showed a systematic developmental pattern rather than random variation. Average digit span increased with age, with older children generally recalling more digits."}]},{"id":"5211195a-549f-4bee-807f-319cedfae9a2","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"The findings suggest verbal short-term memory [ ], rather than being [ ].","back":"The findings suggest verbal short-term memory develops with age, rather than being fixed from early childhood.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The findings suggest verbal short-term memory develops with age, rather than being fixed from early childhood.","correct":true,"explanation":"Digit span increased across age groups, supporting the conclusion that verbal short-term memory continues to develop instead of reaching a fixed capacity in early childhood."},{"text":"The findings suggest verbal short-term memory declines with age, rather than being fixed from early childhood.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the developmental trend found in the study. Digit span increased with age, suggesting that verbal short-term memory develops as children grow older."},{"text":"The findings suggest verbal short-term memory develops with age, rather than being fully developed at birth.","correct":false,"explanation":"The study contrasts age-related development with memory being fixed from early childhood, not with full development at birth. Performance improved progressively across childhood."},{"text":"The findings suggest verbal short-term memory remains unchanged with age, rather than being fixed from early childhood.","correct":false,"explanation":"Remaining unchanged and being fixed describe essentially the same pattern, which the findings reject. Increasing digit spans show that verbal short-term memory develops with age."}]},{"id":"6881f411-9954-4de4-b236-f2b5c259d4a5","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How did the rate of digit span development change with age?","back":"It was faster in early childhood and then began to level off.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It was faster in early childhood and then began to level off.","correct":true,"explanation":"Digit span improved most rapidly during early childhood, but the rate of improvement slowed with increasing age and eventually began to level off."},{"text":"It was slower in early childhood and then began to accelerate.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the reported developmental pattern. Digit span growth was faster in early childhood and then began to level off as children became older."},{"text":"It was constant throughout early childhood and then began to decline.","correct":false,"explanation":"The results did not show a constant rate followed by memory decline. Development was faster in early childhood before the increase in digit span began to level off."},{"text":"It was absent in early childhood and then began to increase rapidly.","correct":false,"explanation":"This places the rapid development too late. Digit span developed most quickly in early childhood, after which its rate of improvement began to level off."}]},{"id":"70f6ce36-3f19-47f8-bafe-64a19db5fc90","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Age-related digit span increases may reflect improved [ ] and better [ ].","back":"Age-related digit span increases may reflect improved rehearsal ability and better attention control.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Age-related digit span increases may reflect improved rehearsal ability and better attention control.","correct":true,"explanation":"Older children can rehearse verbal information more effectively and control their attention more successfully, helping them retain and reproduce longer sequences of digits."},{"text":"Age-related digit span increases may reflect improved visual perception and better motor coordination.","correct":false,"explanation":"Visual perception and motor coordination are not the main processes required for recalling spoken digits. Improved rehearsal ability and attention control better explain the age-related increase."},{"text":"Age-related digit span increases may reflect improved rehearsal ability and better depth perception.","correct":false,"explanation":"Rehearsal supports retention, but depth perception does not explain performance on a spoken digit task. The second relevant development is better attention control."},{"text":"Age-related digit span increases may reflect improved reading fluency and better attention control.","correct":false,"explanation":"Attention control can support digit recall, but reading fluency is not required for spoken sequences. Improved rehearsal ability is the other key explanation for increasing digit span."}]},{"id":"61fe83d9-707c-4cb6-a67c-940a523809ed","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What would the study predict for a 6-year-old given many spoken instructions?","back":"They may forget steps because verbal short-term memory is still developing.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They may forget steps because verbal short-term memory is still developing.","correct":true,"explanation":"A 6-year-old has a more limited capacity for briefly retaining spoken information, so giving many verbal instructions may cause earlier steps to be forgotten."},{"text":"They may forget steps because visual short-term memory is still developing.","correct":false,"explanation":"The instructions are spoken, so the relevant system is verbal rather than visual short-term memory. Its developing capacity may cause a 6-year-old to forget some steps."},{"text":"They may forget steps because procedural long-term memory is still developing.","correct":false,"explanation":"Procedural long-term memory stores learned skills and habits, not a newly spoken list of steps. Forgetting would reflect the limited capacity of developing verbal short-term memory."},{"text":"They may remember all steps because verbal short-term memory is fully developed.","correct":false,"explanation":"This assumes adult-like memory capacity too early. At age 6, verbal short-term memory is still developing, so numerous spoken instructions may overload it."}]},{"id":"359c2601-a704-4588-a9ad-62850700d218","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"How can a teacher reduce verbal memory load for younger children?","back":"Give instructions in smaller chunks.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Give instructions in smaller chunks.","correct":true,"explanation":"Dividing instructions into smaller chunks reduces how much verbal information must be held at once, making the steps easier for younger children to retain and follow."},{"text":"Give instructions in longer sequences.","correct":false,"explanation":"Longer sequences increase the amount of verbal information held simultaneously and risk overloading developing memory. Teachers should instead give instructions in smaller chunks."},{"text":"Give instructions in complex sentences.","correct":false,"explanation":"Complex sentences add processing demands and increase verbal memory load. Breaking instructions into smaller chunks makes them more manageable for younger children."},{"text":"Give instructions in one complete list.","correct":false,"explanation":"Presenting every step as one list can exceed a younger child's verbal short-term memory capacity. Instructions should be divided into smaller chunks instead."}]},{"id":"3dfc59a1-806b-47c9-9257-b1309cdcebb2","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why is the digit span task easy to standardise?","back":"Participants can receive similar instructions, sequences and scoring rules.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Participants can receive similar instructions, sequences and scoring rules.","correct":true,"explanation":"Using consistent instructions, digit sequences and scoring rules creates a uniform procedure, allowing the task to be administered and assessed in the same way."},{"text":"Participants can receive different instructions, sequences and scoring rules.","correct":false,"explanation":"Allowing all three features to differ would make procedures inconsistent and difficult to compare. Standardisation requires similar instructions, sequences and scoring rules."},{"text":"Participants can receive similar instructions, personalised sequences and scoring rules.","correct":false,"explanation":"Personalised sequences introduce variation between participants, reducing procedural consistency. An easily standardised digit span task uses similar instructions, sequences and scoring rules."},{"text":"Participants can receive similar instructions, sequences and subjective judgements.","correct":false,"explanation":"Subjective judgements can produce inconsistent scores between researchers. Standardisation instead depends on similar instructions, sequences and clearly defined scoring rules."}]},{"id":"4b73cf59-e7c8-440e-977c-a4818daae584","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How does standardisation strengthen the study?","back":"It improves reliability by allowing replication under similar conditions.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It improves reliability by allowing replication under similar conditions.","correct":true,"explanation":"Standardised procedures can be repeated using the same instructions, materials and scoring, making consistent findings more likely across replications and therefore improving reliability."},{"text":"It improves ecological validity by making the task resemble everyday life.","correct":false,"explanation":"Standardisation ensures consistency, but it does not necessarily make an artificial digit span task more lifelike. Its main strength is improved reliability through replication under similar conditions."},{"text":"It improves reliability by allowing conditions to vary between replications.","correct":false,"explanation":"Varying conditions undermines reliability because changes could produce inconsistent outcomes. Standardisation improves reliability by enabling replication under similar, controlled conditions."},{"text":"It improves validity by ensuring the task measures long-term memory.","correct":false,"explanation":"Digit span assesses verbal short-term memory rather than long-term memory. Standardisation strengthens the study primarily by improving reliability and supporting replication under similar conditions."}]},{"id":"56876fca-3a1f-46b7-a162-b653fafc64a4","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"[ ] means consistency when a study is repeated under [ ].","back":"Reliability means consistency when a study is repeated under similar conditions.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Reliability means consistency when a study is repeated under similar conditions.","correct":true,"explanation":"Reliability concerns whether a procedure produces consistent findings when repeated under similar conditions. Stable results indicate that measurement is not being dominated by random error."},{"text":"Validity means consistency when a study is repeated under similar conditions.","correct":false,"explanation":"Validity concerns whether a study measures what it intends to measure, rather than consistency across repetitions. Reliability is consistency when a study is repeated under similar conditions."},{"text":"Reliability means consistency when a study is repeated under unrelated conditions.","correct":false,"explanation":"Reliability does not require consistent results under unrelated conditions, where relevant variables may differ substantially. It refers to consistency when a study is repeated under similar conditions."},{"text":"Validity means consistency when a study is repeated under unrelated conditions.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses validity with reliability and also changes the required conditions. Reliability means consistency when a study is repeated under similar conditions."}]},{"id":"5a6d42c3-8627-4457-b299-847b8a54ca17","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Why is objective digit span scoring useful?","back":"A numerical score allows clear comparison between age groups.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A numerical score allows clear comparison between age groups.","correct":true,"explanation":"Objective scoring converts each participant’s performance into a standardised numerical result. Researchers can therefore compare digit spans clearly and consistently across different age groups."},{"text":"A numerical score allows clear diagnosis of memory disorders.","correct":false,"explanation":"A digit span score alone cannot diagnose a memory disorder because diagnosis requires wider assessment and clinical evidence. Its objectivity is useful because it permits clear comparison between age groups."},{"text":"A numerical score allows clear elimination of participant variables.","correct":false,"explanation":"Using numerical scores standardises measurement but does not remove differences between participants, such as anxiety or language experience. Its benefit is enabling clear comparison between age groups."},{"text":"A numerical score allows clear measurement of every memory system.","correct":false,"explanation":"Digit span assesses a limited aspect of immediate verbal memory, so its numerical score cannot measure every memory system. It is useful for clear comparison between age groups."}]},{"id":"52a6c1bb-9131-4a16-950c-73fb8672b09c","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why can’t the cross-sectional design prove individual development directly?","back":"It compares different people, not the same children over time.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It compares different people, not the same children over time.","correct":true,"explanation":"A cross-sectional study samples separate age groups at one point rather than repeatedly testing each child. Age differences therefore cannot directly demonstrate how the same individuals develop."},{"text":"It follows the same children, not different age groups at once.","correct":false,"explanation":"Following the same children over time describes a longitudinal design, which can track individual development directly. A cross-sectional design instead compares different people of different ages."},{"text":"It manipulates memory capacity, not the children’s age over time.","correct":false,"explanation":"Age and memory capacity were measured rather than experimentally manipulated. The real limitation is that a cross-sectional design compares different people instead of following the same children over time."},{"text":"It uses qualitative accounts, not numerical scores over time.","correct":false,"explanation":"Digit span produces numerical scores rather than relying only on qualitative accounts. Individual development cannot be established because different people are compared instead of the same children over time."}]},{"id":"69ad4f6f-9cf4-4ecf-b44d-c462b31a0b91","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"A [ ] follows the same participants over a period of time.","back":"A longitudinal study follows the same participants over a period of time.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"longitudinal study","correct":true,"explanation":"A longitudinal study repeatedly investigates the same participants across an extended period. This allows researchers to observe changes within individuals rather than comparing separate age groups."},{"text":"cross-sectional study","correct":false,"explanation":"A cross-sectional study compares different groups, commonly different ages, at one point in time. A longitudinal study is the design that follows the same participants over time."},{"text":"correlational study","correct":false,"explanation":"A correlational study examines an association between measured variables but does not necessarily involve repeated testing. Following the same participants over time defines a longitudinal study."},{"text":"case study","correct":false,"explanation":"A case study investigates an individual, group or event in depth, but it is not defined by following participants over time. That defining feature belongs to a longitudinal study."}]},{"id":"56ae9258-21c0-496f-a63a-05ba0fd96b11","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why is digit span a narrow measure of memory?","back":"It mainly measures immediate verbal memory, not all memory types.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It mainly measures immediate verbal memory, not all memory types.","correct":true,"explanation":"Digit span requires participants to retain and reproduce recently presented verbal items. It therefore assesses immediate verbal memory rather than the full range of memory systems."},{"text":"It mainly measures long-term episodic memory, not all memory types.","correct":false,"explanation":"Digit span involves immediate recall rather than storing personal events for later retrieval, so it does not mainly assess long-term episodic memory. It principally measures immediate verbal memory."},{"text":"It mainly measures visual-spatial working memory, not all memory types.","correct":false,"explanation":"Standard digit span presents verbal numbers rather than spatial patterns or locations. It mainly measures immediate verbal memory, while visual-spatial memory requires different tasks."},{"text":"It mainly measures procedural motor memory, not all memory types.","correct":false,"explanation":"Procedural memory supports learned skills and actions, whereas repeating a sequence of digits requires short-term retention of verbal information. Digit span mainly measures immediate verbal memory."}]},{"id":"054f947b-59c4-4a20-a151-50d58689391e","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why may the findings not generalise perfectly to all populations?","back":"Digit span can vary with language, such as number-word length.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Digit span can vary with language, such as number-word length.","correct":true,"explanation":"Languages differ in the time needed to pronounce their number words. Shorter number words can be rehearsed more quickly, so digit span findings may not generalise perfectly across languages."},{"text":"Digit span can vary with alphabet size, such as letter inventory length.","correct":false,"explanation":"Alphabet size does not determine how many spoken digits can be rehearsed in immediate memory. Language matters specifically because number-word length affects rehearsal speed."},{"text":"Digit span can vary with grammar, such as sentence structure length.","correct":false,"explanation":"Digit span lists do not depend on understanding complex sentence structures, so grammatical complexity is not the relevant explanation. Cross-language variation can arise from differences in number-word length."},{"text":"Digit span can vary with blood group, such as antigen type.","correct":false,"explanation":"Blood group provides no established explanation for cross-population differences in digit span. Language is relevant because the length of spoken number words affects how quickly they can be rehearsed."}]},{"id":"e5821b84-b1af-46b8-ae09-394cbb19cf0a","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How might anxiety affect a child’s digit span score?","back":"It may lower performance despite typical underlying memory capacity.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It may lower performance despite typical underlying memory capacity.","correct":true,"explanation":"Anxiety can consume attentional resources or disrupt concentration during testing, reducing observed performance. The resulting score may therefore underestimate a child’s underlying memory capacity."},{"text":"It may raise performance despite limited underlying memory capacity.","correct":false,"explanation":"Anxiety commonly interferes with attention and rehearsal rather than reliably improving them. It may lower a child’s performance even when underlying memory capacity is typical."},{"text":"It may lower performance by permanently reducing underlying memory capacity.","correct":false,"explanation":"A low score caused by situational anxiety does not show that memory capacity has permanently deteriorated. Anxiety may temporarily lower performance despite typical underlying memory capacity."},{"text":"It may have no effect because scores reveal only underlying memory capacity.","correct":false,"explanation":"Digit span performance depends on attention and concentration as well as memory capacity, so anxiety can affect the observed score. It may lower performance despite typical underlying capacity."}]},{"id":"a25cf4ab-a526-4fb7-bdcb-bab4eaab95f7","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"For confidentiality, participants’ digit span scores should be [ ].","back":"For confidentiality, participants’ digit span scores should be anonymised.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"anonymised","correct":true,"explanation":"Anonymising scores removes or replaces identifying information so results cannot readily be linked to individual participants. This protects privacy when data are stored, analysed or reported."},{"text":"standardised","correct":false,"explanation":"Standardising scores makes results comparable by placing them on a common scale, but it does not conceal participants’ identities. Confidentiality requires scores to be anonymised."},{"text":"digitised","correct":false,"explanation":"Digitising scores changes how the data are stored and does not prevent them from being linked to named participants. Confidentiality requires the scores to be anonymised."},{"text":"published","correct":false,"explanation":"Publishing scores makes information available to others and could breach confidentiality if identities remain attached. Scores should instead be anonymised by removing or replacing identifying details."}]}]}],"examCountdown":{"examDate":"2027-05-10","paperLabel":"Paper 1"},"heading":"Contemporary study: Sebastián and Hernández-Gil","title":"Contemporary study: Sebastián and Hernández-Gil Flashcards","topbar":{"backHref":"/as-level/psychology/edexcel/flashcards"},"topicSidebar":"$L39"}]}],"topicId":"52c3e932-81c8-56db-92e3-f300a94b94ea","walled":"$L3a"}],"$L3b","$L3c"]