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results from studies using Ainsworth's Strange Situation, a standardised observation designed to classify infants as secure, insecure-avoidant or insecure-resistant."},{"text":"Tronick's Still Face Paradigm.","correct":false,"explanation":"The Still Face Paradigm examines infants' responses to an unresponsive caregiver, not their attachment classification. The meta-analysis was based on Ainsworth's Strange Situation."},{"text":"Main's Adult Attachment Interview.","correct":false,"explanation":"The Adult Attachment Interview assesses adults' representations of childhood relationships rather than observing infant attachment. The study analysed findings from Ainsworth's Strange Situation."},{"text":"Bowlby's 44 Thieves Study.","correct":false,"explanation":"Bowlby's 44 Thieves Study investigated links between maternal deprivation and affectionless psychopathy. Van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg instead analysed Ainsworth's Strange Situation studies."}]},{"id":"c1468448-0e66-4106-ae91-9d763d8217af","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg used a [ ], relying on [ ] rather than a new observation.","back":"Van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg used a meta-analysis, relying on secondary data rather than a new observation.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg used a meta-analysis, relying on secondary data rather than a new observation.","correct":true,"explanation":"A meta-analysis statistically combines findings from existing studies, so the researchers used secondary data already collected through previous Strange Situation observations."},{"text":"Van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg used a laboratory experiment, relying on primary data rather than a new observation.","correct":false,"explanation":"A laboratory experiment would involve collecting new primary data under controlled conditions. The researchers conducted a meta-analysis using secondary data from existing Strange Situation studies."},{"text":"Van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg used a meta-analysis, relying on primary data rather than a new observation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Primary data are collected directly by researchers, which conflicts with using existing results. This meta-analysis relied on secondary data from earlier Strange Situation studies."},{"text":"Van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg used a case study, relying on secondary data rather than a new observation.","correct":false,"explanation":"A case study investigates an individual or small group in depth. The researchers instead used a meta-analysis to combine secondary data from many studies."}]},{"id":"cb11b772-163d-4479-a601-5bb4e41b178a","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What was the aim of van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg's study?","back":"To see whether Strange Situation attachment patterns differed across cultures.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"To see whether Strange Situation attachment patterns differed across cultures.","correct":true,"explanation":"The study compared the distributions of secure, insecure-avoidant and insecure-resistant attachment across countries to investigate possible cultural similarities and differences."},{"text":"To see whether maternal deprivation caused affectionless psychopathy.","correct":false,"explanation":"Maternal deprivation and affectionless psychopathy were central to Bowlby's 44 Thieves Study. This study examined whether Strange Situation attachment patterns differed across cultures."},{"text":"To see whether day care disrupted children's social development.","correct":false,"explanation":"The effects of day care were not the focus of this research. Its aim was to compare Strange Situation attachment patterns across different cultures."},{"text":"To see whether maternal sensitivity determined infant temperament.","correct":false,"explanation":"Maternal sensitivity and temperament may influence attachment, but this study did not test that causal relationship. It compared Strange Situation attachment patterns across cultures."}]},{"id":"09c566b6-d749-4e6d-9ec6-7c9c9c481803","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"The sample was [ ] Strange Situation studies from [ ] countries.","back":"The sample was 32 Strange Situation studies from 8 countries.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The sample was 32 Strange Situation studies from 8 countries.","correct":true,"explanation":"The meta-analysis included 32 separate Strange Situation studies conducted across eight countries, creating a large cross-cultural sample of attachment classifications."},{"text":"The sample was 8 Strange Situation studies from 32 countries.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the two figures. The meta-analysis included 32 Strange Situation studies, and those studies came from eight countries."},{"text":"The sample was 32 Strange Situation studies from 18 countries.","correct":false,"explanation":"The number of studies is correct, but the country total is inflated. The sample comprised 32 studies drawn from eight countries."},{"text":"The sample was 36 Strange Situation studies from 8 countries.","correct":false,"explanation":"The eight-country figure is correct, but adding four studies is a recall error. The researchers analysed 32 Strange Situation studies in total."}]},{"id":"18d1624b-360d-4e5d-8088-fb585d4c42eb","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"In the coding used, Type A was [ ] and Type B was [ ].","back":"In the coding used, Type A was insecure-avoidant and Type B was secure.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"In the coding used, Type A was insecure-avoidant and Type B was secure.","correct":true,"explanation":"Ainsworth's classification identifies Type A as insecure-avoidant and Type B as secure, based on infants' behaviour during separation and reunion episodes."},{"text":"In the coding used, Type A was secure and Type B was insecure-avoidant.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses Types A and B. Type A is insecure-avoidant, characterised by avoiding reunion contact, whereas Type B is secure."},{"text":"In the coding used, Type A was insecure-resistant and Type B was secure.","correct":false,"explanation":"Insecure-resistant attachment is Type C, not Type A. Type A is insecure-avoidant, while Type B is correctly identified as secure."},{"text":"In the coding used, Type A was insecure-avoidant and Type B was insecure-resistant.","correct":false,"explanation":"Type A is correctly labelled insecure-avoidant, but insecure-resistant is Type C. Type B refers to secure attachment."}]},{"id":"1e960d09-97c4-4a61-8df0-22da0d79955a","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"In the coding used, what attachment type was Type C?","back":"Insecure-resistant, also called insecure-ambivalent.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Insecure-resistant, also called insecure-ambivalent.","correct":true,"explanation":"Type C infants seek contact on reunion but also resist comfort, so the classification is called insecure-resistant or insecure-ambivalent."},{"text":"Insecure-avoidant, also called anxious-avoidant.","correct":false,"explanation":"Insecure-avoidant attachment is Type A, not Type C. Type C is insecure-resistant, also known as insecure-ambivalent."},{"text":"Secure, also called securely attached.","correct":false,"explanation":"Secure attachment is classified as Type B. Type C is insecure-resistant or insecure-ambivalent, involving both proximity-seeking and resistance during reunion."},{"text":"Disorganised, also called disoriented attachment.","correct":false,"explanation":"Disorganised attachment was introduced later and was not Ainsworth's Type C. Type C denotes insecure-resistant, also called insecure-ambivalent attachment."}]},{"id":"b93bf064-669d-49df-b2d5-99393191db04","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg focused on Ainsworth's A, B and C types; [ ] attachment was developed [ ].","back":"Van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg focused on Ainsworth's A, B and C types; disorganised attachment was developed later.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg focused on Ainsworth's A, B and C types; disorganised attachment was developed later.","correct":true,"explanation":"The meta-analysis used Ainsworth's original A, B and C classifications. Disorganised attachment was introduced as an additional category after the studies being analysed."},{"text":"Van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg focused on Ainsworth's A, B and C types; disorganised attachment was developed earlier.","correct":false,"explanation":"Disorganised attachment was not an earlier classification omitted by Ainsworth. It was developed later, so the meta-analysis focused on the original A, B and C types."},{"text":"Van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg focused on Ainsworth's A, B and C types; secure attachment was developed later.","correct":false,"explanation":"Secure attachment was already Ainsworth's Type B and therefore part of the analysis. Disorganised attachment was the category developed later."},{"text":"Van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg focused on Ainsworth's A, B and C types; insecure-resistant attachment was developed earlier.","correct":false,"explanation":"Insecure-resistant attachment was already included as Ainsworth's Type C, not a separate earlier category. Disorganised attachment was developed later."}]},{"id":"02eefb61-7663-40f0-a987-200939c5330a","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Secure attachment was most common in [ ], but insecure attachment patterns [ ] between countries.","back":"Secure attachment was most common in every country studied, but insecure attachment patterns varied between countries.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Secure attachment was most common in every country studied, but insecure attachment patterns varied between countries.","correct":true,"explanation":"Secure attachment was the modal classification in all eight countries, although the relative frequencies of insecure-avoidant and insecure-resistant attachment differed cross-culturally."},{"text":"Secure attachment was most common in most countries studied, but insecure attachment patterns varied between countries.","correct":false,"explanation":"Limiting the finding to most countries understates the result. Secure attachment was the most common classification in every country studied, while insecure patterns varied."},{"text":"Secure attachment was most common in every country studied, but insecure attachment patterns remained identical between countries.","correct":false,"explanation":"The universal predominance of secure attachment is correct, but insecure distributions were not identical. Insecure-avoidant and insecure-resistant rates varied between countries."},{"text":"Secure attachment was most common in Western countries only, but insecure attachment patterns remained identical between countries.","correct":false,"explanation":"Secure attachment was most common in every country studied, not only Western countries. The proportions of the two insecure patterns also varied across countries."}]},{"id":"0fefbf75-ff35-4b7d-812e-b3e4144674bf","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What does secure attachment being most common everywhere suggest about attachment?","back":"Attachment may have a universal basis.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Attachment may have a universal basis.","correct":true,"explanation":"Secure attachment predominated across the countries studied, supporting the view that attachment has underlying features shared across human cultures despite differences in child-rearing practices."},{"text":"Attachment may be entirely culturally determined.","correct":false,"explanation":"The findings did not show that culture completely determines attachment. Secure attachment was most common across all countries, suggesting that attachment may have a universal basis."},{"text":"Attachment may occur on a purely random basis.","correct":false,"explanation":"The cross-cultural prevalence of secure attachment does not suggest attachment is random. Its consistent predominance indicates that attachment may have a universal basis."},{"text":"Attachment may be completely genetically fixed.","correct":false,"explanation":"Although attachment behaviours appear early, the study did not show that every pattern is genetically fixed. Secure attachment’s predominance instead suggests a universal basis."}]},{"id":"669955cf-c058-444d-9479-bc802a03f33e","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which country showed relatively high insecure-avoidant attachment?","back":"Germany.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Germany.","correct":true,"explanation":"Germany had a relatively high proportion of infants classified as insecure-avoidant, possibly reflecting cultural encouragement of independence and self-reliance."},{"text":"Japan.","correct":false,"explanation":"Japan was associated with relatively high insecure-resistant attachment, partly because separation was unusual and particularly stressful. Germany showed relatively high insecure-avoidant attachment."},{"text":"Israel.","correct":false,"explanation":"Israel showed relatively high insecure-resistant rather than insecure-avoidant attachment, potentially reflecting experiences in communal child-rearing settings. Germany had the relatively high avoidant rate."},{"text":"The Netherlands.","correct":false,"explanation":"The Netherlands was not the country highlighted for relatively high insecure-avoidant attachment in this comparison. That attachment pattern was relatively common in Germany."}]},{"id":"e28688bb-2492-4209-9cd7-0e7012d57282","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"High avoidant attachment in Germany may reflect cultural emphasis on [ ] and self-reliance, not necessarily [ ].","back":"High avoidant attachment in Germany may reflect cultural emphasis on independence and self-reliance, not necessarily emotional insecurity.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"High avoidant attachment in Germany may reflect cultural emphasis on independence and self-reliance, not necessarily emotional insecurity.","correct":true,"explanation":"German child-rearing may encourage independence and self-reliance, making avoidant behaviour culturally appropriate rather than evidence that infants lack emotional security."},{"text":"High avoidant attachment in Germany may reflect cultural emphasis on dependence and self-reliance, not necessarily emotional insecurity.","correct":false,"explanation":"Dependence conflicts with the German cultural emphasis used to explain avoidant behaviour and also contradicts self-reliance. The intended explanation is independence rather than emotional insecurity."},{"text":"High avoidant attachment in Germany may reflect cultural emphasis on collectivism and self-reliance, not necessarily separation anxiety.","correct":false,"explanation":"Collectivism and separation anxiety are more closely associated with explanations of resistant behaviour in some cultures. German avoidance was linked to independence, not necessarily emotional insecurity."},{"text":"High avoidant attachment in Germany may reflect cultural emphasis on obedience and self-reliance, not necessarily stranger anxiety.","correct":false,"explanation":"Obedience is not the cultural value identified in this interpretation, while stranger anxiety is a normal developmental response rather than the inferred problem. The terms are independence and emotional insecurity."}]},{"id":"a75269e4-4a23-4ff0-ba5e-f0b520c7dfcf","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which attachment pattern was relatively high in Japan and Israel?","back":"Insecure-resistant attachment.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Insecure-resistant attachment.","correct":true,"explanation":"Japan and Israel both had relatively high proportions of insecure-resistant attachment, although cultural child-rearing practices may have influenced infant behaviour during the Strange Situation."},{"text":"Insecure-avoidant attachment.","correct":false,"explanation":"Insecure-avoidant attachment was relatively high in Germany, not Japan and Israel. Japan and Israel instead showed relatively high insecure-resistant attachment."},{"text":"Securely attached attachment.","correct":false,"explanation":"Secure attachment was the most common pattern overall, but it was not the pattern unusually elevated in Japan and Israel. Their insecure-resistant rates were relatively high."},{"text":"Insecure-disorganised attachment.","correct":false,"explanation":"Disorganised attachment was not the pattern identified as relatively high in these two countries in van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s analysis. The pattern was insecure-resistant."}]},{"id":"22ffe782-bd36-4047-8f05-636a1d6f186b","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why might Japanese infants appear more resistant in the Strange Situation?","back":"Separation was unusual, so the procedure was especially stressful.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Separation was unusual, so the procedure was especially stressful.","correct":true,"explanation":"Japanese infants were rarely separated from their mothers, so separation during the Strange Situation could cause unusually intense distress and increase resistant classifications."},{"text":"Separation was routine, so the procedure was especially stressful.","correct":false,"explanation":"Frequent separation would generally make the procedure more familiar rather than especially stressful. Japanese infants were rarely separated, which may have increased resistant behaviour."},{"text":"The toys were unusual, so the procedure was especially stressful.","correct":false,"explanation":"The explanation concerns unfamiliar separation, not unfamiliar toys. Japanese infants rarely experienced maternal separation, making the Strange Situation particularly stressful and increasing apparent resistance."},{"text":"Strangers were familiar, so the procedure was especially stressful.","correct":false,"explanation":"Greater stranger familiarity would not explain heightened separation distress. Japanese infants may have appeared resistant because separation from their mothers was unusual and therefore especially stressful."}]},{"id":"1c85a5f3-4736-4f91-b26a-5d12a28cd8ab","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Intra-cultural variation is difference [ ]; inter-cultural variation is difference [ ].","back":"Intra-cultural variation is difference within a country or culture; inter-cultural variation is difference between countries or cultures.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Intra-cultural variation is difference within a country or culture; inter-cultural variation is difference between countries or cultures.","correct":true,"explanation":"The prefix intra- means within, so intra-cultural variation occurs inside one country or culture. Inter- means between, referring to variation across countries or cultures."},{"text":"Intra-cultural variation is difference between countries or cultures; inter-cultural variation is difference within a country or culture.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the two prefixes. Intra-cultural variation occurs within a country or culture, whereas inter-cultural variation occurs between countries or cultures."},{"text":"Intra-cultural variation is difference between families in one culture; inter-cultural variation is difference between individuals in one family.","correct":false,"explanation":"The distinction is not between families and individuals. Intra-cultural variation is within a country or culture, while inter-cultural variation is between countries or cultures."},{"text":"Intra-cultural variation is difference within the same group over time; inter-cultural variation is difference between different age groups.","correct":false,"explanation":"Variation over time and between age groups uses a developmental distinction, not the cultural one. Intra-cultural means within a culture; inter-cultural means between cultures."}]},{"id":"cae16082-1b58-4333-a849-be3439afb22e","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which was greater: intra-cultural or inter-cultural variation?","back":"Intra-cultural variation was greater.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Intra-cultural variation was greater.","correct":true,"explanation":"Attachment distributions varied more among samples within the same culture than national averages varied between cultures, showing that countries are not internally uniform."},{"text":"Inter-cultural variation was greater.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the reported comparison. Variation among samples within individual countries or cultures was greater than variation between the countries’ overall averages."},{"text":"Both forms of variation were equal.","correct":false,"explanation":"The two forms of variation were not found to be equal. Differences within countries or cultures exceeded differences between national or cultural averages."},{"text":"Neither form of variation was greater.","correct":false,"explanation":"Meaningful variation was found rather than neither type being greater. In particular, differences within countries or cultures were greater than differences between them."}]},{"id":"daff5a52-cf3e-4746-9000-59dcad20e425","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why is it simplistic to say “German infants are like this” or “Japanese infants are like that”?","back":"Within-country differences may exceed differences between national averages.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Within-country differences may exceed differences between national averages.","correct":true,"explanation":"Samples from the same country can differ substantially, and this intra-cultural variation may be larger than differences between national means. National labels therefore conceal important diversity."},{"text":"Infants within each country always show identical attachment patterns.","correct":false,"explanation":"The study found substantial variation within countries, not identical attachment patterns among all their infants. Within-country differences may even exceed differences between national averages."},{"text":"National attachment averages describe every infant in that country.","correct":false,"explanation":"National averages do not eliminate individual and sample differences within a culture. Intra-cultural variation may exceed differences between countries’ average attachment distributions."},{"text":"Cultural child-rearing practices have no influence on attachment.","correct":false,"explanation":"The findings do not show that cultural practices have no influence. The problem is overgeneralisation because within-country differences may exceed differences between national averages."}]},{"id":"3d4a79fb-ca11-42da-bf8e-cb4d3a4d4319","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why was the large evidence base a strength of the study?","back":"32 studies and nearly 2,000 infants gave broader evidence.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"32 studies and nearly 2,000 infants gave broader evidence.","correct":true,"explanation":"A meta-analysis based on many studies and a large combined infant sample is less dependent on one unusual sample, so its conclusions have a broader evidence base."},{"text":"8 studies and nearly 2,000 infants gave broader evidence.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses the number of countries with the number of studies. The strength was that 32 studies and nearly 2,000 infants gave broader evidence."},{"text":"32 studies and nearly 200 infants gave broader evidence.","correct":false,"explanation":"The sample size is underestimated by a factor of about ten. The study drew on nearly 2,000 infants, making the evidence base much broader than 200 infants would."},{"text":"12 studies and nearly 1,000 infants gave broader evidence.","correct":false,"explanation":"This gives a smaller evidence base than the actual meta-analysis. The key strength was that 32 studies and nearly 2,000 infants contributed to the findings."}]},{"id":"b32f9202-8aa4-45ac-b5dd-ee309e0287ff","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How did using the same basic Strange Situation procedure help the meta-analysis?","back":"It improved reliability through more consistent measurement.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It improved reliability through more consistent measurement.","correct":true,"explanation":"Using the same basic Strange Situation procedure meant attachment classifications were gathered in a more standardised way, so findings were more consistently measured across studies."},{"text":"It improved validity through more consistent measurement.","correct":false,"explanation":"Consistent measurement mainly concerns reliability, not validity. Validity would be about whether the Strange Situation genuinely measured attachment in each culture."},{"text":"It improved representativeness through more consistent measurement.","correct":false,"explanation":"Representativeness depends on the sampling of cultures and infants, not whether the same procedure was used. Standardisation mainly improved reliability."},{"text":"It improved ethnocentrism through more consistent measurement.","correct":false,"explanation":"Ethnocentrism is a bias, not a strength to be improved. The same procedure helped reliability, though it could still be criticised as culturally biased."}]},{"id":"ffae1fce-d559-473f-af28-ee901e1aac44","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why can the Strange Situation be criticised as an imposed etic here?","back":"A US-developed method was treated as universally valid.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A US-developed method was treated as universally valid.","correct":true,"explanation":"The Strange Situation was developed in the USA, so applying it as if it measured attachment equally well everywhere risks imposing one culture’s standards on others."},{"text":"A UK-developed method was treated as universally valid.","correct":false,"explanation":"The origin is being misidentified. The Strange Situation was a US-developed method, which is why using it globally can be criticised as an imposed etic."},{"text":"A culture-free method was treated as universally valid.","correct":false,"explanation":"Calling it culture-free misses the criticism. The point is that a US-developed method may carry cultural assumptions but was still applied as universal."},{"text":"A locally adapted method was treated as universally valid.","correct":false,"explanation":"A locally adapted method would reduce the imposed etic problem. The criticism is that the same US-developed method was treated as valid across cultures."}]},{"id":"09c640cc-7ad6-4b3b-bfcf-5ff5982dbbf4","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why is “country” not the same as “culture” in this study?","back":"Countries contain subcultures, differing by class, region and childcare.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Countries contain subcultures, differing by class, region and childcare.","correct":true,"explanation":"A country is a political unit, but culture varies within it. Social class, region and childcare practices can create important subcultural differences."},{"text":"Countries are single cultures, unaffected by class, region and childcare.","correct":false,"explanation":"This is the exact oversimplification being criticised. The correct point is that countries contain subcultures, including differences linked to class, region and childcare."},{"text":"Cultures are fixed by borders, not by class, region and childcare.","correct":false,"explanation":"This treats national borders as cultural boundaries, which is the misconception. Cultures can vary within countries because of class, region and childcare practices."},{"text":"Countries remove subcultures, despite class, region and childcare.","correct":false,"explanation":"Countries do not erase internal cultural variation. The study can be criticised because countries contain subcultures that differ in class, region and childcare."}]},{"id":"f991fe89-f55a-45e0-9c23-3936d941cec6","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"The studies were unevenly distributed: the [ ] was over-represented, and many [ ] were absent.","back":"The studies were unevenly distributed: the USA was over-represented, and many non-Western cultures were absent.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The studies were unevenly distributed: the USA was over-represented, and many non-Western cultures were absent.","correct":true,"explanation":"The sample was not evenly spread across the world: the USA contributed a large share of the studies, while many non-Western cultures were not represented."},{"text":"The studies were unevenly distributed: the UK was over-represented, and many non-Western cultures were absent.","correct":false,"explanation":"This misidentifies the over-represented country. The criticism is that the USA was over-represented, alongside the absence of many non-Western cultures."},{"text":"The studies were unevenly distributed: the USA was over-represented, and many Western cultures were absent.","correct":false,"explanation":"The absent groups are reversed. Western samples, especially the USA, were over-represented; the issue was that many non-Western cultures were absent."},{"text":"The studies were unevenly distributed: the Japan was over-represented, and many European cultures were absent.","correct":false,"explanation":"This swaps in the wrong region and country. The actual sampling criticism is that the USA dominated and many non-Western cultures were missing."}]},{"id":"9781150f-8463-482e-ad66-009b9c4019a3","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What control problem comes from using secondary data?","back":"Researchers could not fully control how original studies were carried out.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Researchers could not fully control how original studies were carried out.","correct":true,"explanation":"Secondary data were collected by other researchers, so van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg could not ensure every original study followed identical procedures or controls."},{"text":"Researchers could not fully control how infants were assigned to conditions.","correct":false,"explanation":"The Strange Situation does not involve assigning infants to experimental conditions in this way. The secondary data issue was control over how original studies were carried out."},{"text":"Researchers could not fully control whether infants gave informed consent.","correct":false,"explanation":"Infants cannot personally give informed consent, and this is mainly an ethics issue. The control problem was not knowing exactly how original studies were carried out."},{"text":"Researchers could not fully control which attachment type was most common.","correct":false,"explanation":"Researchers should not control outcomes such as the most common attachment type. The limitation was limited control over the methods used in the original studies."}]},{"id":"f9b01381-47f2-4f93-93f6-4f91f95d64bb","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What publication bias risk applies to this meta-analysis?","back":"Published studies may over-represent unusual or interesting findings.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Published studies may over-represent unusual or interesting findings.","correct":true,"explanation":"Publication bias occurs because studies with striking or significant findings are more likely to be published, so a meta-analysis of published work may be skewed."},{"text":"Unpublished studies may over-represent unusual or interesting findings.","correct":false,"explanation":"Publication bias is about what appears in the published literature, not unpublished work. The concern is that published studies may over-represent unusual or interesting findings."},{"text":"Laboratory studies may over-represent unusual or interesting findings.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses publication bias with research setting. The publication bias risk is that published studies, whatever their setting, may favour unusual or interesting results."},{"text":"Longitudinal studies may over-represent unusual or interesting findings.","correct":false,"explanation":"Longitudinal design is not the issue here. Publication bias concerns the published evidence base, where studies with unusual or interesting findings are more likely to appear."}]},{"id":"ecffae54-76ba-4543-b1fe-6cea4e20f739","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why was van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg's own study relatively low risk ethically?","back":"It used anonymised published data; infants were not retested.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It used anonymised published data; infants were not retested.","correct":true,"explanation":"The researchers analysed existing published findings rather than directly testing infants again, and anonymised data reduced privacy and distress risks."},{"text":"It used new live observations; infants were not retested.","correct":false,"explanation":"New live observations would involve direct contact and potential distress. The ethical strength was using anonymised published data, so infants were not retested."},{"text":"It used direct video recordings; infants were not retested.","correct":false,"explanation":"Direct video recordings would raise additional consent and privacy issues. The lower-risk feature was reliance on anonymised published data rather than retesting infants."},{"text":"It used parent interview data; infants were not retested.","correct":false,"explanation":"Parent interviews were not the basis of this meta-analysis. Its relatively low ethical risk came from using anonymised published data with no retesting of infants."}]}]}],"examCountdown":{"examDate":"2027-05-10","paperLabel":"Paper 1"},"heading":"Classic study: van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg (1988)","title":"Classic study: van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg (1988) Flashcards","topbar":{"backHref":"/as-level/psychology/edexcel/flashcards"},"topicSidebar":"$L38"}]}],"topicId":"da923d08-4bcd-5051-a6fa-406dc1ff607c","walled":"$L39"}],"$L3a","$L3b"]