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thereby increasing or decreasing the probability that the behaviour will occur again."},{"text":"The antecedent before the behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"An antecedent triggers or sets the occasion for a behaviour, but operant conditioning changes its future probability through the consequence that occurs afterwards."},{"text":"The thought during the behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"Focusing on an internal thought confuses operant conditioning with cognitive explanations. The consequence after the behaviour determines whether that behaviour becomes more or less likely."},{"text":"The stimulus before the behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"A preceding stimulus may signal when a behaviour is appropriate, but it is the consequence after the behaviour that changes its future probability."}]},{"id":"ce0d69c9-a9ef-4938-ac71-9b39913639ea","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"In the ABC model, the [ ] happens before the behaviour and the [ ] happens after it.","back":"In the ABC model, the antecedent happens before the behaviour and the consequence happens after it.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"In the ABC model, the antecedent happens before the behaviour and the consequence happens after it.","correct":true,"explanation":"ABC stands for antecedent, behaviour and consequence. The antecedent precedes and may trigger the behaviour, while the consequence follows it."},{"text":"In the ABC model, the behaviour happens before the behaviour and the consequence happens after it.","correct":false,"explanation":"The first component cannot be the behaviour itself. The antecedent occurs before the behaviour, while the consequence is the event that follows it."},{"text":"In the ABC model, the antecedent happens before the behaviour and the reinforcement happens after it.","correct":false,"explanation":"Reinforcement is only one possible type of consequence, not the general ABC label. The model identifies the event after behaviour as the consequence."},{"text":"In the ABC model, the consequence happens before the behaviour and the antecedent happens after it.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the temporal order of the two components. The antecedent comes before the behaviour, and the consequence occurs afterwards."}]},{"id":"716b3084-8997-44a8-a1ce-ade9b048543a","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What effect does reinforcement have on behaviour?","back":"It increases the likelihood of repetition.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It increases the likelihood of repetition.","correct":true,"explanation":"Reinforcement is defined by its effect: it strengthens a behaviour, making that behaviour more likely to be repeated under similar circumstances."},{"text":"It decreases the likelihood of repetition.","correct":false,"explanation":"Decreasing the likelihood of repetition describes punishment, not reinforcement. Reinforcement makes the behaviour more likely to occur again."},{"text":"It eliminates the likelihood of repetition.","correct":false,"explanation":"Eliminating or suppressing repetition is not the effect of reinforcement. Reinforcement strengthens the response and increases its future likelihood."},{"text":"It maintains the likelihood of repetition.","correct":false,"explanation":"Reinforcement may help maintain established behaviour, but its defining effect is to increase the behaviour’s future likelihood rather than merely leave it unchanged."}]},{"id":"eb5d8c1e-f6a5-427f-853c-20235dd3ceff","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"In positive reinforcement, something desirable is [ ]; in negative reinforcement, something unpleasant is [ ].","back":"In positive reinforcement, something desirable is added; in negative reinforcement, something unpleasant is removed.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"In positive reinforcement, something desirable is added; in negative reinforcement, something unpleasant is removed.","correct":true,"explanation":"Positive means adding a desirable consequence, while negative means removing an unpleasant one. Both forms of reinforcement increase the likelihood of behaviour."},{"text":"In positive reinforcement, something desirable is removed; in negative reinforcement, something unpleasant is added.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses both processes and instead describes forms of punishment. Positive reinforcement adds something desirable, while negative reinforcement removes something unpleasant."},{"text":"In positive reinforcement, something desirable is withheld; in negative reinforcement, something unpleasant is removed.","correct":false,"explanation":"Withholding something desirable does not positively reinforce behaviour. Positive reinforcement adds the desirable stimulus, whereas negative reinforcement removes an unpleasant stimulus."},{"text":"In positive reinforcement, something desirable is added; in negative reinforcement, something unpleasant is added.","correct":false,"explanation":"The first process is accurate, but adding something unpleasant is positive punishment. Negative reinforcement removes an unpleasant stimulus to strengthen behaviour."}]},{"id":"4e2e13d0-c2e1-44eb-a9d4-c69cd05ab500","cardType":"basic","points":3,"front":"How is negative reinforcement different from punishment?","back":"

Negative reinforcement: removes unpleasant stimulus, increases behaviour.
Punishment: decreases behaviour.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Negative reinforcement: removes unpleasant stimulus, increases behaviour.
Punishment: decreases behaviour.

","correct":true,"explanation":"Negative reinforcement strengthens behaviour by removing something unpleasant. Punishment has the opposite behavioural effect because it aims to reduce the likelihood of repetition."},{"text":"

Negative reinforcement: adds unpleasant stimulus, decreases behaviour.
Punishment: increases behaviour.

","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses both concepts: adding an unpleasant stimulus is positive punishment, while punishment decreases behaviour. Negative reinforcement removes something unpleasant and increases behaviour."},{"text":"

Negative reinforcement: removes desirable stimulus, decreases behaviour.
Punishment: increases behaviour.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Removing something desirable is negative punishment, not negative reinforcement. Negative reinforcement removes an unpleasant stimulus and increases behaviour, whereas punishment decreases behaviour."},{"text":"

Negative reinforcement: adds desirable stimulus, increases behaviour.
Punishment: decreases behaviour.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Adding something desirable describes positive reinforcement. Negative reinforcement also increases behaviour, but it does so by removing an unpleasant stimulus; punishment decreases behaviour."}]},{"id":"15b99c41-ff47-43f4-92cc-514beb96643e","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Positive punishment adds something [ ]; negative punishment removes something [ ].","back":"Positive punishment adds something unpleasant; negative punishment removes something desirable.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Positive punishment adds something unpleasant; negative punishment removes something desirable.","correct":true,"explanation":"Positive punishment adds an aversive consequence, while negative punishment takes away a valued stimulus. Both are intended to decrease the behaviour."},{"text":"Positive punishment adds something desirable; negative punishment removes something unpleasant.","correct":false,"explanation":"These changes describe positive and negative reinforcement because both would strengthen behaviour. Punishment instead adds something unpleasant or removes something desirable."},{"text":"Positive punishment adds something unpleasant; negative punishment removes something unpleasant.","correct":false,"explanation":"The positive-punishment description is accurate, but removing something unpleasant is negative reinforcement. Negative punishment removes something desirable to reduce behaviour."},{"text":"Positive punishment adds something desirable; negative punishment removes something desirable.","correct":false,"explanation":"The negative-punishment description is accurate, but adding something desirable is positive reinforcement. Positive punishment adds an unpleasant consequence to decrease behaviour."}]},{"id":"0591cf48-18d0-4ce3-8d3b-78b14a462c78","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why may punishment be less constructive than reinforcement?","back":"It may not teach what to do instead.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It may not teach what to do instead.","correct":true,"explanation":"Punishment can suppress an unwanted response without establishing an appropriate alternative. Reinforcing a replacement behaviour is more constructive because it teaches the desired response."},{"text":"It may clearly teach what to do instead.","correct":false,"explanation":"Punishment usually signals what should not be done rather than teaching an alternative response. Reinforcement can constructively strengthen the behaviour that should replace it."},{"text":"It may make the behaviour more rewarding.","correct":false,"explanation":"Punishment is intended to make behaviour less likely, not more rewarding. Its limitation is that suppression alone may not teach what the person should do instead."},{"text":"It may provide too much reinforcement.","correct":false,"explanation":"Punishment and reinforcement are distinct consequences, so punishment does not necessarily provide excessive reinforcement. It is less constructive because it may fail to teach an alternative behaviour."}]},{"id":"5734b99e-a1e9-4533-8d38-8794feedc440","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What change in consequences produces extinction?","back":"The behaviour is no longer reinforced.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The behaviour is no longer reinforced.","correct":true,"explanation":"Extinction occurs when reinforcement that previously maintained a behaviour is withdrawn. Without that consequence, the response gradually becomes less frequent."},{"text":"The behaviour is no longer punished.","correct":false,"explanation":"Removing punishment may allow behaviour to increase rather than extinguish. Extinction requires the reinforcement previously maintaining the behaviour to stop."},{"text":"The behaviour is reinforced less frequently.","correct":false,"explanation":"Occasional reinforcement can maintain behaviour and may make it especially resistant to extinction. Extinction requires reinforcement to cease, not merely become less frequent."},{"text":"The behaviour is reinforced after delay.","correct":false,"explanation":"Delayed reinforcement may weaken learning, but reinforcement is still being provided. Extinction occurs only when the behaviour is no longer reinforced."}]},{"id":"e6ee3dda-787b-4917-8102-084a956c2d83","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What may happen just before a behaviour decreases during extinction?","back":"An extinction burst: a temporary behaviour increase.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"An extinction burst: a temporary behaviour increase.","correct":true,"explanation":"When reinforcement is first withdrawn, the behaviour may briefly become more frequent or intense before declining. This temporary increase is known as an extinction burst."},{"text":"A spontaneous recovery: a temporary behaviour increase.","correct":false,"explanation":"Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of an extinguished response after a rest period. A brief increase immediately before the behaviour declines is an extinction burst."},{"text":"A stimulus generalisation: a temporary behaviour increase.","correct":false,"explanation":"Stimulus generalisation involves responding similarly to stimuli resembling the original one. The temporary increase caused by withdrawing reinforcement is an extinction burst."},{"text":"A negative reinforcement: a temporary behaviour increase.","correct":false,"explanation":"Negative reinforcement strengthens behaviour by removing an unpleasant stimulus; it is not a stage of extinction. The temporary increase before decline is an extinction burst."}]},{"id":"b6bb03b4-6c8e-424a-bc5c-473f0a274283","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Behaviour modification is the systematic use of learning principles, especially [ ], to [ ].","back":"Behaviour modification is the systematic use of learning principles, especially operant conditioning, to change behaviour.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Behaviour modification is the systematic use of learning principles, especially operant conditioning, to change behaviour.","correct":true,"explanation":"Behaviour modification applies operant conditioning principles, such as reinforcement and punishment, systematically to increase desirable behaviour or decrease undesirable behaviour."},{"text":"Behaviour modification is the systematic use of learning principles, especially classical conditioning, to change behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"Classical conditioning concerns learning associations between stimuli, but behaviour modification is based especially on operant conditioning, which changes behaviour through its consequences."},{"text":"Behaviour modification is the systematic use of learning principles, especially operant conditioning, to explain behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"Explaining behaviour is a theoretical aim rather than the defining practical purpose. Behaviour modification uses operant conditioning systematically to change behaviour."},{"text":"Behaviour modification is the systematic use of learning principles, especially observational learning, to measure behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"Observational learning and measurement can inform psychological research, but behaviour modification specifically applies operant conditioning principles to change behaviour."}]},{"id":"51dcc4d6-a08c-4942-8b06-195812a358b7","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What makes 'remain seated during independent work for 10 minutes' better than 'be better behaved'?","back":"It is operationalised: observers know exactly what to record.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It is operationalised: observers know exactly what to record.","correct":true,"explanation":"The target behaviour is defined in specific, observable and measurable terms. This allows different observers to identify and record the same behaviour consistently."},{"text":"It is standardised: every participant receives identical instructions.","correct":false,"explanation":"Standardisation means using the same procedure or instructions for everyone. The statement is better because it operationalises the behaviour by specifying exactly what observers should record."},{"text":"It is counterbalanced: order effects are removed from the observation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Counterbalancing controls order effects in repeated measures designs and is unrelated to defining a target behaviour. The specific statement is better because it is operationalised."},{"text":"It is randomised: observers cannot predict what will happen.","correct":false,"explanation":"Randomisation reduces systematic bias in allocation or procedure, but it does not make a behaviour measurable. The statement is better because the target behaviour is operationalised."}]},{"id":"e932f890-e776-47c2-852a-de4178d6b037","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why record a baseline before behaviour modification starts?","back":"To judge whether the programme changed the behaviour.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"To judge whether the programme changed the behaviour.","correct":true,"explanation":"A baseline records the behaviour before intervention, providing a comparison point. Later measurements can therefore show whether the behaviour changed after the programme began."},{"text":"To ensure that the programme rewards every behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"Reinforcing every behaviour would also strengthen unwanted responses. A baseline is recorded to compare behaviour before and after the programme and judge whether it changed."},{"text":"To prove that the programme caused the behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"The target behaviour already exists before the programme, so the programme does not cause it. Baseline data help judge whether the programme changed its frequency or form."},{"text":"To decide whether the programme punished the behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"Behaviour modification need not use punishment, and baseline recording does not identify a consequence as punishment. It provides pre-intervention data for judging whether behaviour changed."}]},{"id":"3e47eea7-a3fb-46a7-9575-32297026bff1","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"In a token economy, tokens are [ ]; rewards exchanged for them are [ ].","back":"In a token economy, tokens are secondary reinforcers; rewards exchanged for them are backup reinforcers.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"In a token economy, tokens are secondary reinforcers; rewards exchanged for them are backup reinforcers.","correct":true,"explanation":"Tokens acquire reinforcing value through association with other rewards, making them secondary reinforcers. The goods, activities or privileges obtained with tokens are backup reinforcers."},{"text":"In a token economy, tokens are primary reinforcers; rewards exchanged for them are backup reinforcers.","correct":false,"explanation":"Primary reinforcers satisfy biological needs without learning, whereas tokens gain value through association. Tokens are secondary reinforcers, while exchanged rewards are backup reinforcers."},{"text":"In a token economy, tokens are secondary reinforcers; rewards exchanged for them are negative reinforcers.","correct":false,"explanation":"Negative reinforcement involves removing an unpleasant stimulus to strengthen behaviour. Rewards purchased with tokens are instead called backup reinforcers; the tokens are secondary reinforcers."},{"text":"In a token economy, tokens are negative reinforcers; rewards exchanged for them are primary reinforcers.","correct":false,"explanation":"Tokens do not strengthen behaviour by removing something unpleasant, so they are not negative reinforcers. They are secondary reinforcers exchanged for backup reinforcers."}]},{"id":"c4a83277-3d3d-4955-9bd8-0edfa360693c","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What did Ayllon and Azrin (1968) use token systems to increase?","back":"Adaptive behaviours in psychiatric settings.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Adaptive behaviours in psychiatric settings.","correct":true,"explanation":"Ayllon and Azrin used a token economy in psychiatric settings to reinforce adaptive behaviours, including self-care, social interaction and constructive participation in daily activities."},{"text":"Aggressive behaviours in psychiatric settings.","correct":false,"explanation":"Increasing aggression was not the aim of the token systems. Ayllon and Azrin used tokens to increase adaptive behaviours among patients in psychiatric settings."},{"text":"Academic behaviours in classroom settings.","correct":false,"explanation":"Token economies can be used in classrooms, but Ayllon and Azrin’s 1968 work concerned psychiatric settings and aimed to increase patients’ adaptive behaviours."},{"text":"Attachment behaviours in nursery settings.","correct":false,"explanation":"Attachment behaviour in nurseries was not the focus of Ayllon and Azrin’s token systems. Their work increased adaptive behaviours in psychiatric settings."}]},{"id":"e262186a-f57d-474a-a329-9f4806a95b5a","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why is shaping useful when the final desired behaviour does not occur yet?","back":"There is nothing to reinforce directly yet.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"There is nothing to reinforce directly yet.","correct":true,"explanation":"If the final response is absent, it cannot receive direct reinforcement. Shaping therefore reinforces increasingly close approximations until the desired behaviour is produced."},{"text":"There is nothing to punish directly yet.","correct":false,"explanation":"Shaping is based on reinforcing approximations, not waiting for something to punish. It is useful because the absent final behaviour cannot yet be reinforced directly."},{"text":"There is no baseline to measure yet.","correct":false,"explanation":"A baseline can record current behaviour even when the final response is absent. Shaping is needed because there is nothing matching the target behaviour to reinforce directly."},{"text":"There is no reinforcer to deliver yet.","correct":false,"explanation":"A suitable reinforcer may already be available; what is missing is the final desired response. Shaping reinforces existing approximations because the target cannot yet be reinforced directly."}]},{"id":"f869f1ad-4869-4cd5-9ef3-b7bd0345559b","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Shaping reinforces [ ] until the [ ] is achieved.","back":"Shaping reinforces successive approximations until the final desired behaviour is achieved.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Shaping reinforces successive approximations until the final desired behaviour is achieved.","correct":true,"explanation":"Shaping rewards responses that become progressively closer to the target. Reinforcement criteria are gradually changed until the individual performs the final desired behaviour."},{"text":"Shaping reinforces random behaviours until the final desired behaviour is achieved.","correct":false,"explanation":"Reinforcing random behaviours would not systematically guide learning towards the target. Shaping selectively reinforces successive approximations until the final desired behaviour is achieved."},{"text":"Shaping reinforces successive approximations until the baseline behaviour is achieved.","correct":false,"explanation":"Baseline behaviour is what occurs before the intervention, not the intended outcome. Shaping reinforces successive approximations until the final desired behaviour is achieved."},{"text":"Shaping reinforces complete responses until the initial undesired behaviour is achieved.","correct":false,"explanation":"Waiting for complete responses defeats the purpose of shaping, and the undesired behaviour is not the goal. Successive approximations are reinforced towards the final desired behaviour."}]},{"id":"217baee9-b460-4a77-bafa-143db36d3d3e","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"In shaping, what counts as a successive approximation worth reinforcing?","back":"A behaviour closer to the target than current behaviour.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A behaviour closer to the target than current behaviour.","correct":true,"explanation":"Shaping progresses by reinforcing responses that more closely resemble the final target than the individual’s present behaviour, gradually raising the criterion for reinforcement."},{"text":"A behaviour identical to the target from the first attempt.","correct":false,"explanation":"Requiring the complete target immediately overlooks the gradual nature of shaping. A successive approximation is any behaviour closer to the target than the current behaviour."},{"text":"A behaviour easier to perform than current behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"Reducing difficulty does not necessarily move behaviour towards the target. Reinforcement should follow a response that is closer to the target than current behaviour."},{"text":"A behaviour repeated more often than current behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"Greater frequency alone is not a successive approximation if the response is no closer to the goal. The reinforced behaviour must increasingly resemble the target."}]},{"id":"48d2e970-bb3d-4672-8146-aba7ff11a997","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How does differential reinforcement work in shaping?","back":"Reinforce closer behaviours while not reinforcing less desired ones.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Reinforce closer behaviours while not reinforcing less desired ones.","correct":true,"explanation":"Differential reinforcement selectively rewards responses that are closer to the target and withholds reinforcement from less appropriate responses, directing behaviour towards the desired outcome."},{"text":"Reinforce all behaviours equally while gradually increasing the reward.","correct":false,"explanation":"Rewarding every response equally provides no selective pressure towards the target. Differential reinforcement rewards closer behaviours while withholding reinforcement from less desired ones."},{"text":"Reinforce less desired behaviours while ignoring closer ones.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses differential reinforcement and would strengthen responses that are further from the target. Closer behaviours should be reinforced while less desired ones are not."},{"text":"Punish less desired behaviours while not reinforcing closer ones.","correct":false,"explanation":"Differential reinforcement depends on selectively rewarding improved responses, not merely punishing unwanted ones. Closer behaviours are reinforced while less desired behaviours receive no reinforcement."}]},{"id":"8e23ae4e-cb8b-4de9-adbc-0d0da5b4b3b1","cardType":"basic","points":3,"front":"How should reinforcement schedules usually change during shaping?","back":"

Continuous reinforcement early: clear behaviour-consequence link.
Intermittent reinforcement later: resists extinction.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Continuous reinforcement early: clear behaviour-consequence link.
Intermittent reinforcement later: resists extinction.

","correct":true,"explanation":"Continuous reinforcement initially makes the contingency easy to learn. Moving later to intermittent reinforcement makes the established behaviour more persistent and resistant to extinction."},{"text":"

Intermittent reinforcement early: clear behaviour-consequence link.
Continuous reinforcement later: resists extinction.

","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the usual progression. Continuous reinforcement initially establishes a clear contingency, while intermittent reinforcement later makes the learned behaviour more resistant to extinction."},{"text":"

Continuous reinforcement early: clear behaviour-consequence link.
Continuous reinforcement later: resists extinction.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Continuous reinforcement is useful for initial learning but creates lower resistance to extinction. Once established, the behaviour should usually move onto intermittent reinforcement."},{"text":"

Intermittent reinforcement early: clear behaviour-consequence link.
Intermittent reinforcement later: resists extinction.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Intermittent reinforcement can make the early contingency harder to identify. Shaping usually begins with continuous reinforcement, then changes to intermittent reinforcement for persistence."}]},{"id":"9d760c03-0a08-4b46-af2a-3f053fa90351","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"[ ] means behaviour continues over time; [ ] means it occurs in other settings.","back":"Maintenance means behaviour continues over time; generalisation means it occurs in other settings.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Maintenance means behaviour continues over time; generalisation means it occurs in other settings.","correct":true,"explanation":"Maintenance is the persistence of learned behaviour over time, whereas generalisation is the transfer of that behaviour to contexts or settings beyond the original one."},{"text":"Generalisation means behaviour continues over time; maintenance means it occurs in other settings.","correct":false,"explanation":"The concepts have been reversed. Maintenance describes persistence over time, while generalisation describes the behaviour appearing in other settings or situations."},{"text":"Acquisition means behaviour continues over time; generalisation means it occurs in other settings.","correct":false,"explanation":"Acquisition is the initial learning of a behaviour, not its continuation over time. Persistence is maintenance, while occurrence in other settings is generalisation."},{"text":"Maintenance means behaviour continues over time; discrimination means it occurs in other settings.","correct":false,"explanation":"Discrimination involves responding differently to distinct stimuli or contexts, rather than transferring behaviour across them. Transfer to other settings is called generalisation."}]},{"id":"ce6723ad-2c87-466b-8826-e78e1a38ea6c","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why is focusing on observable behaviour a strength of behaviour modification?","back":"It allows objective, reliable measurement of change.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It allows objective, reliable measurement of change.","correct":true,"explanation":"Observable actions can be recorded and quantified consistently, reducing reliance on subjective interpretation and allowing researchers or practitioners to assess behavioural change reliably."},{"text":"It allows subjective, detailed interpretation of change.","correct":false,"explanation":"Subjective interpretation can vary between observers and is not the key behavioural strength. Observable behaviour permits objective, reliable measurement of change."},{"text":"It allows unconscious, internal measurement of change.","correct":false,"explanation":"Internal and unconscious processes cannot be directly observed, so this conflicts with the behavioural approach. Its strength is objective, reliable measurement of observable change."},{"text":"It allows theoretical, flexible explanations of change.","correct":false,"explanation":"Flexible theoretical explanations may be difficult to test consistently. Focusing on observable behaviour instead enables objective and reliable measurement of behavioural change."}]},{"id":"3d904324-77b5-43ea-b854-dce16eeee3c2","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why can behaviour modification be criticised as reductionist?","back":"It over-focuses on external consequences, ignoring internal/social factors.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It over-focuses on external consequences, ignoring internal/social factors.","correct":true,"explanation":"Behaviour modification can reduce complex behaviour to learned responses controlled by reinforcement and punishment, neglecting cognitive, emotional and wider social influences."},{"text":"It over-focuses on internal thoughts, ignoring environmental factors.","correct":false,"explanation":"This criticism applies more readily to strongly cognitive explanations. Behaviour modification primarily emphasises external consequences and may neglect internal and social factors."},{"text":"It over-focuses on social relationships, ignoring reinforcement factors.","correct":false,"explanation":"Behaviour modification is not usually criticised for prioritising relationships. Its reductionism comes from emphasising external reinforcement and punishment while overlooking internal and social influences."},{"text":"It over-focuses on biological structures, ignoring learned behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"A biological reductionist account might make this error, but behaviour modification focuses on learning through external consequences and can ignore internal and social factors."}]},{"id":"252b65f6-61ab-41b7-b78a-9ba0f68dac5d","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why should artificial rewards be faded gradually?","back":"To avoid reward dependency and support natural maintenance.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"To avoid reward dependency and support natural maintenance.","correct":true,"explanation":"Gradual fading prevents the behaviour from depending permanently on artificial reinforcement and allows naturally occurring consequences to maintain it over time."},{"text":"To increase reward dependency and prevent natural maintenance.","correct":false,"explanation":"Increasing dependency makes behaviour less likely to continue when artificial rewards stop. Rewards are faded gradually to support maintenance through natural consequences."},{"text":"To avoid behaviour generalisation and preserve artificial control.","correct":false,"explanation":"Generalisation is usually desirable rather than something to prevent. Gradual fading aims to avoid reward dependency and let natural reinforcers maintain the behaviour."},{"text":"To increase immediate extinction and remove learned behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"Fading is intended to preserve the learned behaviour, not extinguish it. A gradual reduction prevents reward dependency while transferring control to natural reinforcement."}]},{"id":"64ed252e-6942-466c-bd94-b6351f9f8cb3","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why are punishment-based programmes ethically risky?","back":"They may cause distress or harm.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They may cause distress or harm.","correct":true,"explanation":"Punishment can produce psychological distress, fear or physical harm, raising ethical concerns about participant welfare even when the programme aims to change behaviour."},{"text":"They may cause enjoyment or confidence.","correct":false,"explanation":"Enjoyment and confidence would not explain the ethical concern. Punishment-based programmes are risky because aversive consequences may cause distress or harm."},{"text":"They may cause generalisation or maintenance.","correct":false,"explanation":"Generalisation and maintenance are potential behavioural outcomes, not inherently ethical problems. The concern is that punishment may inflict distress or harm."},{"text":"They may cause objectivity or reliability.","correct":false,"explanation":"Objectivity and reliability are methodological strengths rather than ethical risks. Punishment-based programmes are ethically concerning because they may cause distress or harm."}]}]}],"examCountdown":{"examDate":"2027-05-10","paperLabel":"Paper 1"},"heading":"Behaviour modification and shaping","title":"Behaviour modification and shaping Flashcards","topbar":{"backHref":"/as-level/psychology/edexcel/flashcards"},"topicSidebar":"$L38"}]}],"topicId":"a39795bd-2bb9-53f7-8766-8dc560f7178b","walled":"$L39"}],"$L3a","$L3b"]