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24:[["$","$L33",null,{"feature":"flashcards"}],"$L34",["$","$L35",null,{"href":"/as-level/chemistry/edexcel/as-bonding/flashcards","label":"Bonding","subjectCode":"as_level_chemistry","surface":"flashcards"}],["$","$L36",null,{"runner":["$","div",null,{"className":"min-h-0 flex-1 overflow-hidden bg-background","children":["$","$L37",null,{"decks":[{"id":"bdf2c793-cdc2-4f6d-9710-cd2ae949da83","title":"Bonding Flashcards","topicId":"76fc0a55-48db-5ae2-a321-bacd0921b57f","topicSlug":"as-bonding","cards":[{"id":"319f22a1-c2a6-4eef-9e57-60b5d0ba6dd8","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"A chemical bond is a strong [ ] holding atoms or ions together.","back":"A chemical bond is a strong electrostatic attraction holding atoms or ions together.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"electrostatic attraction","correct":true,"explanation":"Chemical bonds arise from attraction between opposite charges, such as nuclei and electrons or positive and negative ions. This electrostatic attraction holds the bonded particles together."},{"text":"electrostatic repulsion","correct":false,"explanation":"Like charges experience electrostatic repulsion, which pushes particles apart rather than bonding them. A chemical bond is a strong electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged particles."},{"text":"gravitational attraction","correct":false,"explanation":"Gravity between atoms is far too weak to account for chemical bonding. Bonds result from electrostatic attraction involving charged nuclei, electrons or ions."},{"text":"magnetic attraction","correct":false,"explanation":"Magnetism is not the general force responsible for holding atoms or ions together. Chemical bonding is caused by strong electrostatic attraction between charged particles."}]},{"id":"0c69ce57-2f3a-4336-8deb-63d68c25eed5","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What charged particles are attracted in an ionic bond?","back":"Oppositely charged ions.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Oppositely charged ions.","correct":true,"explanation":"An ionic bond is the electrostatic attraction between positive ions and negative ions. Their opposite charges produce the strong attractive force holding the ionic structure together."},{"text":"Oppositely charged electrons.","correct":false,"explanation":"All electrons have the same negative charge, so they repel rather than attract one another. Ionic bonding occurs between oppositely charged positive and negative ions."},{"text":"Positive ions and electrons.","correct":false,"explanation":"Attraction between positive ions and delocalised electrons describes metallic bonding. An ionic bond is the electrostatic attraction between positive and negative ions."},{"text":"Two neutral atoms.","correct":false,"explanation":"Neutral atoms are not the charged particles involved in an ionic bond. Ionic bonding specifically results from electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions."}]},{"id":"ce3081b6-4e48-43b7-a7c4-9b83b8ec7b48","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why does MgCl₂ contain two chloride ions per magnesium ion?","back":"Two Cl⁻ ions balance one Mg²⁺ ion.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Two Cl⁻ ions balance one Mg²⁺ ion.","correct":true,"explanation":"Each chloride ion contributes a charge of -1, so two give -2 overall. This exactly balances the +2 charge of one magnesium ion."},{"text":"One Cl⁻ ion balances one Mg²⁺ ion.","correct":false,"explanation":"This treats charges of different magnitudes as though they cancel. One Cl⁻ leaves a net +1 charge, so two Cl⁻ ions are needed for each Mg²⁺ ion."},{"text":"Two Mg²⁺ ions balance one Cl⁻ ion.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the required ion ratio and gives a net charge of +3. Two Cl⁻ ions, with total charge -2, balance one Mg²⁺ ion."},{"text":"Two Cl²⁻ ions balance one Mg²⁺ ion.","correct":false,"explanation":"Chloride ions have charge -1, not -2; two hypothetical Cl²⁻ ions would total -4. Two genuine Cl⁻ ions balance one Mg²⁺ ion."}]},{"id":"217e0b73-e493-43a2-a117-d14a366bbf31","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Solid sodium chloride is a [ ], not separate [ ].","back":"Solid sodium chloride is a giant ionic lattice, not separate molecules.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Solid sodium chloride is a giant ionic lattice, not separate molecules.","correct":true,"explanation":"Solid sodium chloride contains a repeating three-dimensional arrangement of Na⁺ and Cl⁻ ions. It therefore forms a giant ionic lattice rather than discrete NaCl molecules."},{"text":"Solid sodium chloride is a giant covalent lattice, not separate molecules.","correct":false,"explanation":"Giant covalent lattices contain atoms joined by covalent bonds, whereas sodium chloride contains oppositely charged ions. Its solid structure is therefore a giant ionic lattice."},{"text":"Solid sodium chloride is a giant ionic lattice, not separate ions.","correct":false,"explanation":"The lattice is composed of individual Na⁺ and Cl⁻ ions, so denying the ions is misleading. The key contrast is that these ions do not form separate molecules."},{"text":"Solid sodium chloride is a simple molecular structure, not separate ions.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses ionic and simple molecular structures. Solid sodium chloride consists of Na⁺ and Cl⁻ ions arranged in a giant ionic lattice, not discrete molecules."}]},{"id":"d9ac230a-6477-4206-a720-c9134ca0d47e","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"In an ionic dot-and-cross diagram, what must be shown for each ion?","back":"Brackets and charges.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Brackets and charges.","correct":true,"explanation":"Each ion must be enclosed in brackets with its charge written outside. This shows that electron transfer has produced charged particles rather than neutral atoms."},{"text":"Electron shells and charges.","correct":false,"explanation":"Although outer electrons may be drawn, brackets are essential for identifying each species as an ion. A complete ionic diagram must show brackets and charges."},{"text":"Brackets and electron pairs.","correct":false,"explanation":"Electron pairs may appear in the outer shells, but they do not replace the ionic charge. Each ion must be shown in brackets with its charge."},{"text":"Brackets and atomic numbers.","correct":false,"explanation":"Atomic numbers identify elements but are not required on ionic dot-and-cross diagrams. Each ion must instead have brackets and its resulting electrical charge."}]},{"id":"7aa07506-0049-4efa-ba33-12b1daf12af0","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What is attracted to the nuclei in a covalent bond?","back":"A shared pair of electrons.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A shared pair of electrons.","correct":true,"explanation":"Both positive nuclei attract the same pair of negative electrons. This electrostatic attraction between the nuclei and shared electron pair forms the covalent bond."},{"text":"A transferred pair of electrons.","correct":false,"explanation":"Electron transfer produces ions and is associated with ionic bonding, not covalent bonding. In a covalent bond, the nuclei attract a shared pair of electrons."},{"text":"A shared pair of protons.","correct":false,"explanation":"Protons remain inside atomic nuclei and are not shared during chemical bonding. A covalent bond forms when both nuclei attract a shared pair of electrons."},{"text":"A delocalised sea of electrons.","correct":false,"explanation":"Delocalised electrons are characteristic of metallic bonding and are shared across many metal ions. A covalent bond involves a localised shared pair of electrons."}]},{"id":"ceb2de7d-0c61-4fca-9735-6ccc736179ef","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"A double bond contains [ ] shared pairs; a triple bond contains [ ] shared pairs.","back":"A double bond contains two shared pairs; a triple bond contains three shared pairs.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A double bond contains two shared pairs; a triple bond contains three shared pairs.","correct":true,"explanation":"Each covalent bond line represents one shared electron pair. Consequently, a double bond has two shared pairs and a triple bond has three shared pairs."},{"text":"A double bond contains one shared pair; a triple bond contains three shared pairs.","correct":false,"explanation":"One shared pair forms a single bond, not a double bond. A double bond contains two shared pairs, while a triple bond contains three."},{"text":"A double bond contains two shared pairs; a triple bond contains four shared pairs.","correct":false,"explanation":"This overcounts the electron pairs in a triple bond by one. A triple bond consists of three shared pairs, while a double bond consists of two."},{"text":"A double bond contains three shared pairs; a triple bond contains two shared pairs.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the bond multiplicities. A double bond contains two shared electron pairs, and the higher-order triple bond contains three shared pairs."}]},{"id":"d8314fad-15c0-4f3b-8b3b-c03ed88ac6fa","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"In dot-and-cross diagrams, dots and crosses show where outer-shell electrons [ ].","back":"In dot-and-cross diagrams, dots and crosses show where outer-shell electrons originally came from.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"originally came from","correct":true,"explanation":"Dots and crosses distinguish electrons supplied by different atoms before bonding. They track each outer-shell electron’s original atom, not a physical difference between electrons."},{"text":"are transferred to","correct":false,"explanation":"The symbols identify the atoms from which electrons originated, not merely their final destinations. This distinction also applies to shared electrons in covalent bonds, where no transfer occurs."},{"text":"are located after bonding","correct":false,"explanation":"The diagram’s position already shows where electrons are after bonding. Dots and crosses specifically distinguish which atom each outer-shell electron originally came from."},{"text":"are shared equally","correct":false,"explanation":"Dots and crosses do not indicate how equally a bonding pair is shared; electronegativity determines that. They show which atom originally supplied each outer-shell electron."}]},{"id":"846d67ec-9b95-4f95-84f4-ed1af542532c","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"A [ ] has both electrons in the shared pair donated by the [ ].","back":"A dative covalent bond has both electrons in the shared pair donated by the same atom.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A dative covalent bond has both electrons in the shared pair donated by the same atom.","correct":true,"explanation":"In a dative covalent bond, one atom donates both electrons forming the shared pair, although the bond behaves like an ordinary covalent bond once formed."},{"text":"A standard covalent bond has both electrons in the shared pair donated by the same atom.","correct":false,"explanation":"An ordinary covalent bond normally contains one electron from each bonded atom. A dative covalent bond instead has both shared electrons donated by the same atom."},{"text":"A dative covalent bond has both electrons in the shared pair donated by the two bonded atoms.","correct":false,"explanation":"A dative bond does not involve one electron being donated by each atom. Both electrons in its shared pair come from the same donor atom."},{"text":"A ionic bond has both electrons in the shared pair donated by the acceptor atom.","correct":false,"explanation":"Ionic bonding involves electrostatic attraction after electron transfer rather than a shared electron pair. The stated arrangement describes a dative covalent bond formed by one donor atom."}]},{"id":"d453707f-a147-4e80-8164-09cf97e8b6c1","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What two features allow a dative covalent bond to form?","back":"

Donor species has a lone pair.
Acceptor species can accept that pair.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Donor species has a lone pair.
Acceptor species can accept that pair.

","correct":true,"explanation":"The donor must possess a lone pair to supply both bonding electrons, while the acceptor must have a suitable vacant orbital able to receive that pair."},{"text":"

Donor species has an unpaired electron.
Acceptor species donates another electron.

","correct":false,"explanation":"A donor needs a lone pair, not an unpaired electron, and the acceptor receives both electrons together. These are the requirements for forming a dative covalent bond."},{"text":"

Donor species has a positive charge.
Acceptor species has a negative charge.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Oppositely charged ions are associated with ionic bonding, not the defining requirements for a dative bond. A lone-pair donor and an electron-pair acceptor are required."},{"text":"

Donor species has an empty orbital.
Acceptor species provides a lone pair.

","correct":false,"explanation":"The roles have been reversed: the donor supplies a lone pair, whereas the acceptor must have the capacity to receive that pair into a vacant orbital."}]},{"id":"99f5b213-9138-4446-aefd-e87bf3176a22","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What charged particles are attracted in metallic bonding?","back":"Positive metal ions and delocalised electrons.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Positive metal ions and delocalised electrons.","correct":true,"explanation":"Metallic bonding is the electrostatic attraction between a lattice of positive metal ions and the delocalised electrons that move throughout the metallic structure."},{"text":"Negative metal ions and delocalised electrons.","correct":false,"explanation":"Negative metal ions are not present in a normal metallic lattice. Metallic bonding attracts positive metal ions to the surrounding sea of delocalised electrons."},{"text":"Positive metal ions and negative non-metal ions.","correct":false,"explanation":"Metallic bonding does not consist of attraction between discrete positive and negative ions, which instead describes ionic bonding. It involves positive metal ions and delocalised electrons."},{"text":"Positive atomic nuclei and localised electron pairs.","correct":false,"explanation":"Atomic nuclei and localised electron pairs do not describe the charged components of metallic bonding. The attraction is between positive metal ions and delocalised electrons."}]},{"id":"0d498d22-8e40-4d74-af05-92f787f9cf10","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Delocalised electrons are not attached to [ ] and can [ ].","back":"Delocalised electrons are not attached to one particular atom and can move through the structure.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Delocalised electrons are not attached to one particular atom and can move through the structure.","correct":true,"explanation":"Delocalised electrons are not confined to an individual atom or bond. They can move through the metallic lattice, allowing metals to conduct electricity and thermal energy."},{"text":"Delocalised electrons are not attached to one particular atom and can remain fixed in the structure.","correct":false,"explanation":"Delocalised electrons are not tied to one atom, but they are mobile rather than fixed. Their movement through the structure enables electrical conduction."},{"text":"Delocalised electrons are not attached to one particular covalent bond and can move between only two atoms.","correct":false,"explanation":"Movement restricted to two atoms describes electrons localised in a covalent bond. Delocalised electrons are not attached to one particular atom and move throughout the structure."},{"text":"Delocalised electrons are not attached to any metal ion and can orbit a single nucleus.","correct":false,"explanation":"Orbiting a single nucleus would make an electron localised around one atom. Delocalised electrons instead move through the whole structure without belonging to one particular atom."}]},{"id":"e2e9a0da-ace5-4965-93f0-dfe8dad13f27","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why do metals conduct electricity?","back":"Delocalised electrons move and carry charge.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Delocalised electrons move and carry charge.","correct":true,"explanation":"Metals contain mobile delocalised electrons. When a potential difference is applied, these electrons move through the lattice and transfer electrical charge."},{"text":"Positive metal ions move and carry charge.","correct":false,"explanation":"The positive ions vibrate but do not travel through the solid lattice to carry charge. Electrical conduction results from the movement of delocalised electrons."},{"text":"Negative metal ions move and carry charge.","correct":false,"explanation":"Metals do not contain mobile negative ions; their atoms form positive ions surrounded by delocalised electrons. Those electrons move through the lattice and carry charge."},{"text":"Localised electron pairs move and carry charge.","correct":false,"explanation":"Localised electron pairs are confined to particular atoms or bonds and cannot carry charge through a structure. Metals conduct because their delocalised electrons are mobile."}]},{"id":"bbe0e01e-636d-4a3e-8005-43ca87db9233","cardType":"basic","points":3,"front":"Why does magnesium have a higher melting temperature than sodium?","back":"

Mg²⁺ has greater charge than Na⁺.
More delocalised electrons per atom in magnesium.
Stronger metallic bonding needs more energy to overcome.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Mg²⁺ has greater charge than Na⁺.
More delocalised electrons per atom in magnesium.
Stronger metallic bonding needs more energy to overcome.

","correct":true,"explanation":"Each magnesium atom contributes two delocalised electrons and forms Mg²⁺, producing stronger electrostatic attraction than in sodium. More energy is therefore needed to overcome metallic bonding."},{"text":"

Mg⁺ has lower charge than Na²⁺.
Fewer delocalised electrons per atom in magnesium.
Weaker metallic bonding needs more energy to overcome.

","correct":false,"explanation":"The ion charges and electron contributions have been reversed. Magnesium forms Mg²⁺ and contributes more delocalised electrons, so its metallic bonding is stronger than sodium’s."},{"text":"

Mg⁺ has the same charge as Na⁺.
Equal delocalised electrons per atom in each metal.
Identical metallic bonding needs equal energy to overcome.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Magnesium and sodium do not form ions of equal charge or contribute equal numbers of electrons. Mg²⁺ and two delocalised electrons per atom create stronger metallic bonding."},{"text":"

Mg²⁺ has lower charge than Na⁺.
Fewer delocalised electrons per atom in magnesium.
Weaker metallic bonding needs less energy to overcome.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Magnesium’s higher melting temperature is not caused by weaker attraction. Its greater ionic charge and larger electron contribution strengthen metallic bonding, increasing the energy required."}]},{"id":"9d11e292-518f-4fd4-8a2a-c0772d6326c7","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Electron-pair repulsion theory says electron pairs around a central atom arrange [ ].","back":"Electron-pair repulsion theory says electron pairs around a central atom arrange as far apart as possible.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"as far apart as possible","correct":true,"explanation":"Electron pairs repel one another because they are negatively charged. They adopt an arrangement that maximises their separation and therefore minimises repulsion."},{"text":"as close together as possible","correct":false,"explanation":"Electron pairs repel rather than attract one another, so arranging close together would maximise repulsion. They arrange as far apart as possible to minimise it."},{"text":"at random","correct":false,"explanation":"Electron-pair arrangements are determined by repulsion, not chance. The pairs take predictable positions as far apart as possible around the central atom."},{"text":"in opposite pairs","correct":false,"explanation":"Electron pairs do not necessarily form opposite pairs; the arrangement depends on the total number of electron-density regions. All regions arrange as far apart as possible."}]},{"id":"56c6ee28-c47a-43a2-80a1-3545ec23f9dd","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"For VSEPR shape, how many regions does a double or triple bond count as?","back":"One region of electron density.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"One region of electron density.","correct":true,"explanation":"A multiple bond contains several shared electron pairs, but all occupy the same direction between two atoms. VSEPR therefore treats it as one region of electron density."},{"text":"Two regions of electron density.","correct":false,"explanation":"Counting each shared pair separately causes this misconception. A double bond still points in one direction, so VSEPR counts it as one region of electron density."},{"text":"Three regions of electron density.","correct":false,"explanation":"A triple bond contains three shared pairs, but VSEPR does not count those pairs as separate regions. The whole multiple bond forms one electron-density region."},{"text":"Zero regions of electron density.","correct":false,"explanation":"A multiple bond must affect the arrangement because it contains electron density. VSEPR counts the entire double or triple bond as one region, not zero."}]},{"id":"6856a378-04d9-43db-9209-a95682cbc6b4","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Repulsion strength: [ ] > [ ] > bonding pair-bonding pair.","back":"Repulsion strength: lone pair-lone pair > lone pair-bonding pair > bonding pair-bonding pair.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Repulsion strength: lone pair-lone pair > lone pair-bonding pair > bonding pair-bonding pair.","correct":true,"explanation":"Lone pairs occupy more space than bonding pairs because they are attracted by only one nucleus. Repulsion therefore decreases from lone pair-lone pair to lone pair-bonding pair to bonding pair-bonding pair."},{"text":"Repulsion strength: lone pair-bonding pair > lone pair-lone pair > bonding pair-bonding pair.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the two strongest interactions. Two lone pairs repel most strongly because both electron clouds are concentrated around one nucleus, followed by lone pair-bonding pair repulsion."},{"text":"Repulsion strength: bonding pair-bonding pair > lone pair-bonding pair > bonding pair-bonding pair.","correct":false,"explanation":"Bonding pair-bonding pair repulsion is the weakest, not the strongest. The correct order begins with lone pair-lone pair, followed by lone pair-bonding pair."},{"text":"Repulsion strength: lone pair-lone pair > bonding pair-bonding pair > bonding pair-bonding pair.","correct":false,"explanation":"This incorrectly makes the final two interactions equally strong. A lone pair occupies more space than a bonding pair, so lone pair-bonding pair repulsion exceeds bonding pair-bonding pair repulsion."}]},{"id":"4b39ac41-9113-4265-90e1-8e17c8bcf1b1","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What shape and bond angle for 2 bonding regions, 0 lone pairs?","back":"Linear, 180°.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Linear, 180°.","correct":true,"explanation":"Two bonding regions repel until they are as far apart as possible, placing them on opposite sides of the central atom and producing a linear shape with a 180° angle."},{"text":"Linear, 90°.","correct":false,"explanation":"A 90° angle is associated with adjacent positions in an octahedral arrangement, not two electron regions. Two bonding regions move to opposite sides, giving a linear shape and 180°."},{"text":"Trigonal planar, 120°.","correct":false,"explanation":"Trigonal planar geometry requires three bonding regions around the central atom. With only two regions and no lone pairs, maximum separation produces a linear shape with a 180° angle."},{"text":"Tetrahedral, 109.5°.","correct":false,"explanation":"Tetrahedral geometry requires four electron regions, so applying its angle here confuses electron-region counts. Two bonding regions form a linear arrangement with a bond angle of 180°."}]},{"id":"f16a2c96-077b-42b6-860f-91a8e26ab1e2","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What shape and bond angle for 3 bonding regions, 0 lone pairs?","back":"Trigonal planar, 120°.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Trigonal planar, 120°.","correct":true,"explanation":"Three bonding regions repel into one plane with equal separation. This produces a trigonal planar arrangement in which each bond angle is 120°."},{"text":"Linear, 180°.","correct":false,"explanation":"Linear geometry applies to two electron regions, not three. Three bonding regions spread equally within one plane, producing a trigonal planar shape with 120° angles."},{"text":"Pyramidal, about 107°.","correct":false,"explanation":"Pyramidal geometry arises when four electron regions include one lone pair. With three bonding regions and no lone pairs, the molecule is trigonal planar with 120° angles."},{"text":"Tetrahedral, 109.5°.","correct":false,"explanation":"Tetrahedral geometry requires four bonding regions around the central atom. Three bonding regions with no lone pairs instead form a trigonal planar arrangement with 120° bond angles."}]},{"id":"0202477d-198c-4008-ba45-82f8d95795ce","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What shape and bond angle for 4 bonding regions, 0 lone pairs?","back":"Tetrahedral, 109.5°.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Tetrahedral, 109.5°.","correct":true,"explanation":"Four bonding regions repel equally and arrange themselves towards the corners of a tetrahedron. This maximises their separation and gives bond angles of 109.5°."},{"text":"Square planar, 90°.","correct":false,"explanation":"A square planar arrangement typically comes from six electron regions with two opposite lone pairs, not four bonding regions alone. Four bonding regions form a tetrahedron with 109.5° angles."},{"text":"Trigonal planar, 120°.","correct":false,"explanation":"Trigonal planar geometry accounts for only three electron regions. Four bonding regions repel into three dimensions, producing a tetrahedral shape with bond angles of 109.5°."},{"text":"Pyramidal, about 107°.","correct":false,"explanation":"Pyramidal geometry would require one of four electron regions to be a lone pair. With all four regions bonding, the shape is tetrahedral and the angle is 109.5°."}]},{"id":"feeae074-ba72-4c5e-94bf-1973bf9a368e","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What shape and bond angle for 3 bonding regions, 1 lone pair?","back":"Pyramidal, about 107°.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Pyramidal, about 107°.","correct":true,"explanation":"Four electron regions give a tetrahedral electron arrangement, but one is a lone pair. Stronger lone pair-bonding pair repulsion produces a pyramidal molecular shape and compresses the angle to about 107°."},{"text":"Trigonal planar, 120°.","correct":false,"explanation":"Trigonal planar geometry applies when all three electron regions are bonding regions. Here the lone pair creates four electron regions overall, giving a pyramidal shape with angles of about 107°."},{"text":"Tetrahedral, 109.5°.","correct":false,"explanation":"Tetrahedral describes four bonding regions with no lone pairs. Replacing one bonding region with a lone pair makes the molecular shape pyramidal and compresses the bond angle to about 107°."},{"text":"Non-linear, about 104.5°.","correct":false,"explanation":"About 104.5° is associated with two bonding regions and two lone pairs, where stronger lone-pair repulsions cause greater compression. One lone pair gives a pyramidal shape at about 107°."}]},{"id":"9d518ab6-a31f-450e-9cfe-918d33ebf28d","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What shape and bond angle for 2 bonding regions, 2 lone pairs?","back":"Non-linear, about 104.5°.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Non-linear, about 104.5°.","correct":true,"explanation":"The four electron regions have a tetrahedral arrangement, but only two contain bonds. Two lone pairs repel strongly, producing a non-linear shape and compressing the bond angle to about 104.5°."},{"text":"Linear, 180°.","correct":false,"explanation":"A linear shape would require two bonding regions and no lone pairs. The two lone pairs repel the bonding pairs strongly, bending the molecule and reducing the angle to about 104.5°."},{"text":"Pyramidal, about 107°.","correct":false,"explanation":"A pyramidal molecule has three bonding regions and one lone pair. Two bonding regions and two lone pairs instead produce a non-linear shape with a smaller angle of about 104.5°."},{"text":"Tetrahedral, 109.5°.","correct":false,"explanation":"The tetrahedral angle describes four bonding regions without lone pairs. Two lone pairs exert stronger repulsion than bonding pairs, producing a non-linear shape and compressing the angle to about 104.5°."}]},{"id":"01880911-701d-4c97-b83e-71435ae31663","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract the [ ] in a [ ].","back":"Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract the bonding pair of electrons in a covalent bond.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract the bonding pair of electrons in a covalent bond.","correct":true,"explanation":"Electronegativity describes how strongly an atom attracts the shared bonding pair of electrons within a covalent bond. A greater attraction shifts electron density towards that atom."},{"text":"Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract the outer-shell electrons in a covalent bond.","correct":false,"explanation":"Electronegativity concerns attraction for shared bonding electrons, not all outer-shell electrons. The correct definition specifies the bonding pair of electrons in a covalent bond."},{"text":"Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract the bonding pair of electrons in a ionic bond.","correct":false,"explanation":"An ionic bond involves electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions rather than a shared bonding pair. Electronegativity is defined using the bonding pair of electrons in a covalent bond."},{"text":"Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract the transferred electron in a metallic bond.","correct":false,"explanation":"Metallic bonding contains delocalised electrons rather than one transferred electron attracted by an individual atom. Electronegativity refers to attracting the bonding pair of electrons in a covalent bond."}]},{"id":"8632ec31-c225-41c9-81ac-8e8d833f71e9","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What creates a polar bond?","back":"Bonding electrons are pulled closer to the more electronegative atom.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Bonding electrons are pulled closer to the more electronegative atom.","correct":true,"explanation":"A difference in electronegativity causes unequal sharing of the bonding electrons. Electron density shifts towards the more electronegative atom, creating partial charges and therefore a polar bond."},{"text":"Bonding electrons are pulled closer to the less electronegative atom.","correct":false,"explanation":"Electronegativity measures attraction for bonding electrons, so they move towards the more electronegative atom, not the less electronegative one. This unequal distribution creates the bond dipole."},{"text":"Bonding electrons are shared equally between the two bonded atoms.","correct":false,"explanation":"Equal attraction produces equal sharing and therefore a non-polar bond. A polar bond forms when bonding electrons are pulled closer to the more electronegative atom."},{"text":"Bonding electrons are transferred completely to the more electronegative atom.","correct":false,"explanation":"A polar covalent bond involves unequal sharing, not complete electron transfer. Transfer produces ions, whereas bonding electrons in a polar bond remain shared but lie closer to the more electronegative atom."}]},{"id":"0ef7f0b9-0c9a-4c0b-92bf-88cf0ee73083","cardType":"basic","points":3,"front":"Why is CO₂ non-polar overall but H₂O polar overall?","back":"

CO₂: linear and symmetrical, so dipoles cancel.
H₂O: non-linear, so dipoles do not cancel.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

CO₂: linear and symmetrical, so dipoles cancel.
H₂O: non-linear, so dipoles do not cancel.

","correct":true,"explanation":"The two polar C=O bond dipoles act in opposite directions and cancel in linear CO₂. In bent H₂O, the O-H bond dipoles are not opposite, so a resultant dipole remains."},{"text":"

CO₂: linear and symmetrical, but C=O bonds are non-polar.
H₂O: non-linear, and O-H bonds are polar.

","correct":false,"explanation":"C=O bonds are polar because oxygen is more electronegative than carbon. CO₂ is non-polar because its opposing bond dipoles cancel, whereas the dipoles in non-linear H₂O do not cancel."},{"text":"

CO₂: non-linear, but dipoles cancel.
H₂O: linear, so dipoles do not cancel.

","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the molecular shapes: CO₂ is linear, while H₂O is bent because oxygen has two lone pairs. Therefore, CO₂’s dipoles cancel but H₂O’s do not."},{"text":"

CO₂: linear and symmetrical, so dipoles reinforce.
H₂O: non-linear, so dipoles cancel.

","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses how the bond dipoles combine. The opposite C=O dipoles cancel in linear CO₂, while the angled O-H dipoles in non-linear H₂O produce a resultant dipole."}]}]}],"examCountdown":{"examDate":"2027-05-11","paperLabel":"Paper 1"},"heading":"Bonding","title":"Bonding Flashcards","topbar":{"backHref":"/as-level/chemistry/edexcel/flashcards"},"topicSidebar":"$L38"}]}],"topicId":"76fc0a55-48db-5ae2-a321-bacd0921b57f","walled":"$L39"}],"$L3a","$L3b"]