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species under the biological species concept."},{"text":"sterile offspring","correct":false,"explanation":"Sterile offspring cannot reproduce, so their production does not place the parents in the same species. The required term is fertile offspring."},{"text":"viable offspring","correct":false,"explanation":"Viability means the offspring can survive, but they may still be infertile. The species definition specifically requires fertile offspring that can reproduce."},{"text":"genetically identical offspring","correct":false,"explanation":"Sexual reproduction produces genetically varied offspring rather than genetically identical ones. Membership of the same species is demonstrated by producing fertile offspring."}]},{"id":"c0ca9f84-3eb9-49f3-96b2-ca322e7f5e19","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Two populations mate and produce infertile offspring. Are they the same species by this definition?","back":"No - offspring must be fertile.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"No - offspring must be fertile.","correct":true,"explanation":"Producing offspring is insufficient if those offspring cannot reproduce. Under the biological species concept, members of the same species must produce fertile offspring."},{"text":"Yes - producing any offspring is sufficient.","correct":false,"explanation":"The ability to produce any offspring is not sufficient, because hybrids may be infertile. The populations are not the same species because their offspring are infertile."},{"text":"Yes - offspring only need to survive.","correct":false,"explanation":"Survival and fertility are different properties: viable offspring may survive but remain sterile. The populations are not the same species because offspring must be fertile."},{"text":"Yes - successful mating proves they are one species.","correct":false,"explanation":"Successful mating does not alone establish membership of one species, as different species can produce sterile hybrids. The offspring must also be fertile."}]},{"id":"00205415-d850-4e1f-ac44-0e6c4db30314","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"For what type of organisms does the fertile-offspring definition work best?","back":"Sexually reproducing organisms.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Sexually reproducing organisms.","correct":true,"explanation":"The definition depends on organisms mating and on testing whether their offspring are fertile, so it is most applicable to sexually reproducing organisms."},{"text":"Asexually reproducing organisms.","correct":false,"explanation":"Asexually reproducing organisms do not mate or produce offspring through fertilisation, so fertility between two parents cannot be tested. The definition works best for sexually reproducing organisms."},{"text":"Organisms known only from fossils.","correct":false,"explanation":"Fossils cannot be observed mating or tested for the fertility of their offspring. The fertile-offspring definition works best for living, sexually reproducing organisms."},{"text":"Geographically isolated organisms.","correct":false,"explanation":"Geographically isolated organisms may never meet, so their ability to interbreed cannot readily be tested. The definition works best for sexually reproducing organisms that can mate."}]},{"id":"ab237f79-84c9-4b8f-93af-8bad8e9f8749","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Courtship behaviour is a sequence of signals or actions occurring [ ].","back":"Courtship behaviour is a sequence of signals or actions occurring before mating.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"before mating","correct":true,"explanation":"Courtship signals and actions prepare potential mates and allow recognition and coordination before mating begins."},{"text":"during fertilisation","correct":false,"explanation":"Courtship must occur before mating because it helps individuals recognise and coordinate with a suitable mate. It is not a sequence performed during fertilisation."},{"text":"after mating","correct":false,"explanation":"Actions occurring after mating cannot help an individual select and coordinate with that mating partner beforehand. Courtship therefore occurs before mating."},{"text":"during mating","correct":false,"explanation":"Courtship leads up to mating rather than beginning only once mating is underway. Its recognition and coordination functions operate before mating."}]},{"id":"0fbcf043-ac02-401f-b29a-7e03ac0ffad4","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What does courtship help an organism identify in a potential mate?","back":"A mate of the same species.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A mate of the same species.","correct":true,"explanation":"Species-specific courtship signals allow an organism to recognise a compatible mate of its own species, helping to prevent unsuccessful interspecific mating."},{"text":"A mate from the same habitat.","correct":false,"explanation":"Sharing a habitat does not guarantee that two organisms belong to the same species. Courtship primarily helps identify a mate of the same species."},{"text":"A mate with identical alleles.","correct":false,"explanation":"Members of the same species normally have genetic variation rather than identical alleles. Courtship helps recognise species identity, not complete genetic identity."},{"text":"A mate of a different species.","correct":false,"explanation":"Courtship acts as a reproductive barrier by discouraging mating between different species. It helps an organism identify a mate of the same species."}]},{"id":"e06ee8be-a1f8-4261-a12f-434c79176409","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What can courtship show about the signaller's reproductive state?","back":"It is sexually mature and ready to mate.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It is sexually mature and ready to mate.","correct":true,"explanation":"Responding appropriately to courtship signals indicates that the signaller has reached sexual maturity and is currently prepared to reproduce."},{"text":"It is sexually immature and not ready to mate.","correct":false,"explanation":"Courtship signals generally indicate readiness for reproduction, not sexual immaturity. The signaller is showing that it is sexually mature and ready to mate."},{"text":"It is sexually mature but not ready to mate.","correct":false,"explanation":"Sexual maturity alone is insufficient if the organism is not currently receptive. Courtship signals indicate both sexual maturity and readiness to mate."},{"text":"It is physically healthy and free from parasites.","correct":false,"explanation":"Courtship may sometimes advertise general condition, but freedom from parasites is not the reproductive state being signalled. It indicates sexual maturity and readiness to mate."}]},{"id":"83666332-7c55-43f9-823b-cc1b9072df27","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How can courtship increase the chance of fertilisation?","back":"It synchronises reproductive behaviour.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It synchronises reproductive behaviour.","correct":true,"explanation":"Courtship coordinates the partners' responses and timing, increasing the likelihood that mating or gamete release occurs when both organisms are reproductively ready."},{"text":"It makes the partners’ gametes genetically identical.","correct":false,"explanation":"Courtship does not alter the genetic similarity of gametes. It increases fertilisation success by synchronising the reproductive behaviour of the two partners."},{"text":"It ensures fertilisation occurs inside the body.","correct":false,"explanation":"Whether fertilisation is internal or external depends on the species, not on courtship itself. Courtship increases success by synchronising reproductive behaviour."},{"text":"It prevents partners releasing gametes together.","correct":false,"explanation":"Preventing coordinated gamete release would reduce fertilisation success, particularly during external fertilisation. Courtship instead synchronises the partners' reproductive behaviour."}]},{"id":"8b00d71c-2986-4b81-8602-b6b5696b9ba9","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How can courtship reduce infertile hybrids?","back":"Species recognition reduces mating with the wrong species.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Species recognition reduces mating with the wrong species.","correct":true,"explanation":"Species-specific courtship signals allow individuals to recognise members of their own species, reducing interspecific mating and the production of infertile hybrid offspring."},{"text":"Sex recognition reduces mating with the wrong species.","correct":false,"explanation":"Sex recognition may prevent mating with an unsuitable sex, but it does not distinguish between species. Species recognition reduces mating with the wrong species."},{"text":"Random mating reduces mating with the wrong species.","correct":false,"explanation":"Random mating would make encounters with members of another species more likely rather than prevent them. Species recognition is what reduces interspecific mating."},{"text":"Individual recognition reduces mating with the wrong species.","correct":false,"explanation":"Individual recognition distinguishes particular organisms but does not necessarily establish that they share a species. Species recognition prevents mating with the wrong species."}]},{"id":"dee7bf1a-583b-4c1b-a67e-db2c38107d98","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Classification arranges organisms into groups based on shared [ ] or [ ].","back":"Classification arranges organisms into groups based on shared features or relationships.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Classification arranges organisms into groups based on shared features or relationships.","correct":true,"explanation":"Classification uses observable or measurable features and evidence of biological or evolutionary relationships to place organisms into meaningful groups."},{"text":"Classification arranges organisms into groups based on shared habitats or locations.","correct":false,"explanation":"Habitats and locations can be shared by unrelated organisms, so they are not the fundamental bases of classification. Classification instead uses shared features or relationships."},{"text":"Classification arranges organisms into groups based on shared sizes or lifespans.","correct":false,"explanation":"Size and lifespan may vary greatly among closely related organisms and can be similar in unrelated organisms. Classification is based on shared features or relationships."},{"text":"Classification arranges organisms into groups based on shared diets or behaviours.","correct":false,"explanation":"Diet and behaviour can change in response to environmental conditions and may not indicate ancestry. Classification groups organisms using shared features or relationships."}]},{"id":"cec90da5-59e7-4221-8d02-ad976e0c4093","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"A [ ] is a named taxonomic group; the plural is [ ].","back":"A taxon is a named taxonomic group; the plural is taxa.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A taxon is a named taxonomic group; the plural is taxa.","correct":true,"explanation":"A taxon is any named group used in biological classification, such as a family or genus. Its irregular plural form is taxa."},{"text":"A taxa is a named taxonomic group; the plural is taxon.","correct":false,"explanation":"Taxa is the plural form, not the singular, while taxon is singular. The correct singular-plural pairing is taxon and taxa."},{"text":"A taxonomy is a named taxonomic group; the plural is taxonomies.","correct":false,"explanation":"Taxonomy is the science of classification rather than an individual named group. Such a group is a taxon, and multiple groups are taxa."},{"text":"A rank is a named taxonomic group; the plural is ranks.","correct":false,"explanation":"A rank is a level in the hierarchy, such as class or order, rather than a particular named group. The required terms are taxon and taxa."}]},{"id":"efe5a7d4-2923-40ba-bc87-277b9582ac01","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What does phylogenetic classification prioritise over superficial similarity?","back":"Evolutionary relationships.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Evolutionary relationships.","correct":true,"explanation":"Phylogenetic classification groups organisms according to their evolutionary history and common ancestry, rather than relying mainly on outward resemblance."},{"text":"Anatomical similarities.","correct":false,"explanation":"Anatomical similarities can result from convergent evolution and therefore may be superficial. Phylogenetic classification ultimately prioritises evolutionary relationships."},{"text":"Ecological similarities.","correct":false,"explanation":"Unrelated organisms may occupy similar environments because they have independently evolved comparable adaptations. Phylogenetic classification instead prioritises evolutionary relationships."},{"text":"Behavioural similarities.","correct":false,"explanation":"Similar behaviours may evolve independently in response to similar selection pressures, so they do not necessarily show ancestry. Evolutionary relationships are prioritised."}]},{"id":"fcc612ac-9917-4a7c-9784-aac24418acdd","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What does phylogenetic classification aim to reflect about common ancestors?","back":"How recently organisms shared common ancestors.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"How recently organisms shared common ancestors.","correct":true,"explanation":"Phylogenetic classification represents the recency of common ancestry: organisms sharing a more recent common ancestor are classified as more closely related."},{"text":"Where geographically organisms shared common ancestors.","correct":false,"explanation":"The geographical location of an ancestral population does not determine phylogenetic closeness. Classification reflects how recently organisms shared common ancestors."},{"text":"How frequently organisms shared common ancestors.","correct":false,"explanation":"Organisms do not repeatedly share different common ancestors in the sense implied by frequency. Phylogenies indicate how recently their common ancestor lived."},{"text":"How widely organisms shared common ancestors.","correct":false,"explanation":"The size of an ancestral population is not the key measure of relatedness. Phylogenetic classification reflects how recently organisms shared common ancestors."}]},{"id":"bf8d794d-e3f3-4a01-892e-5e2cec7d060f","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why can body shape alone give a misleading classification?","back":"Similar environments can make unrelated organisms look similar.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Similar environments can make unrelated organisms look similar.","correct":true,"explanation":"Convergent evolution exposes unrelated organisms to similar selection pressures, producing analogous body forms despite a lack of close common ancestry."},{"text":"Similar environments can make related organisms genetically identical.","correct":false,"explanation":"Related organisms are not made genetically identical merely by occupying similar environments. Body shape can mislead because similar environments can make unrelated organisms look similar."},{"text":"Different environments always make related organisms look identical.","correct":false,"explanation":"Different environments commonly produce divergent adaptations rather than identical appearances. The misleading resemblance arises when similar environments make unrelated organisms look similar."},{"text":"Body shape changes randomly and never reflects evolutionary relationships.","correct":false,"explanation":"Body shape is influenced by selection and can provide evolutionary evidence, so it is not wholly random. It misleads when convergent evolution makes unrelated organisms look similar."}]},{"id":"06cb1b7b-64ea-44c4-933e-6b1298f1ebbe","cardType":"basic","points":3,"front":"List the taxonomic hierarchy from largest to smallest.","back":"Domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species.","correct":true,"explanation":"The standard hierarchy becomes progressively more specific from domain down to species, with each lower taxon nested within the one above it."},{"text":"Domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, species, genus.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses genus and species. A genus contains one or more closely related species, so genus must come immediately before species."},{"text":"Domain, kingdom, phylum, class, family, order, genus, species.","correct":false,"explanation":"This swaps order and family. An order contains related families, so order must be listed before family when moving from largest to smallest."},{"text":"Domain, kingdom, class, phylum, order, family, genus, species.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses phylum and class. A phylum contains multiple classes, so phylum must come before class in the descending hierarchy."}]},{"id":"fdd67f51-6ddf-4b99-9dce-3aec74f365b2","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"In the hierarchy, smaller groups are nested inside [ ] groups and do not [ ].","back":"In the hierarchy, smaller groups are nested inside larger groups and do not overlap.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"In the hierarchy, smaller groups are nested inside larger groups and do not overlap.","correct":true,"explanation":"Taxonomic ranks form a nested hierarchy: each smaller group belongs within a larger group, and groups at a given rank do not overlap."},{"text":"In the hierarchy, smaller groups are nested inside smaller groups and do not overlap.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the direction of nesting. Smaller taxa are contained within larger taxa, and the groups do not overlap."},{"text":"In the hierarchy, smaller groups are nested inside larger groups and do overlap.","correct":false,"explanation":"Although smaller groups are nested within larger ones, distinct taxa at the same rank do not overlap; each organism is assigned consistently within the hierarchy."},{"text":"In the hierarchy, smaller groups are nested inside smaller groups and do overlap.","correct":false,"explanation":"Both relationships are reversed: smaller groups are nested inside larger groups, and separate groups at the same rank do not overlap."}]},{"id":"4e7e5440-0a82-46ae-8980-748e59767d4a","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which shared taxon suggests closer relatedness: same genus or same family only?","back":"The same genus.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The same genus.","correct":true,"explanation":"Genus is a lower and more specific rank than family. Organisms sharing a genus therefore share a more recent common ancestor than organisms sharing only a family."},{"text":"The same family.","correct":false,"explanation":"A family contains one or more genera, so sharing only a family indicates less close relatedness than sharing a genus. The same genus is the closer relationship."},{"text":"The same order.","correct":false,"explanation":"Order is broader than both family and genus, so sharing an order provides weaker evidence of close relatedness. Sharing the same genus indicates greater relatedness."},{"text":"The same phylum.","correct":false,"explanation":"A phylum is a very broad taxonomic rank containing many classes, orders, families and genera. Of the stated choices, sharing a genus indicates closer relatedness."}]},{"id":"c2851844-91a2-417d-82d3-8895b2ec4906","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"A binomial consists of the [ ] name followed by the [ ] name.","back":"A binomial consists of the genus name followed by the species name.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A binomial consists of the genus name followed by the species name.","correct":true,"explanation":"Binomial nomenclature gives each organism a two-part scientific name: its genus first and its species name second, as in Homo sapiens."},{"text":"A binomial consists of the family name followed by the genus name.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses the taxonomic hierarchy with binomial nomenclature. A binomial contains the genus name followed by the species name, not the family and genus names."},{"text":"A binomial consists of the species name followed by the genus name.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the required order. The genus name is written first and the species name second, for example Homo sapiens."},{"text":"A binomial consists of the genus name followed by the family name.","correct":false,"explanation":"The second part is not the organism’s family. A binomial consists specifically of its genus name followed by its species name."}]},{"id":"a0a45055-6cf3-4fc9-ab65-583565bc02bf","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"In a binomial, the genus starts with a [ ] letter and the species part starts with a [ ] letter.","back":"In a binomial, the genus starts with a capital letter and the species part starts with a lower-case letter.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"In a binomial, the genus starts with a capital letter and the species part starts with a lower-case letter.","correct":true,"explanation":"Scientific naming conventions require the genus to begin with a capital letter and the species part with a lower-case letter, as in Homo sapiens."},{"text":"In a binomial, the genus starts with a lower-case letter and the species part starts with a capital letter.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the capitalisation convention. The genus begins with a capital letter, while the species part begins with a lower-case letter."},{"text":"In a binomial, the genus starts with a capital letter and the species part starts with a capital letter.","correct":false,"explanation":"Only the genus begins with a capital letter. The species part must start with a lower-case letter, even when the complete binomial begins a sentence."},{"text":"In a binomial, the genus starts with a lower-case letter and the species part starts with a lower-case letter.","correct":false,"explanation":"This incorrectly treats both words alike. The genus must begin with a capital letter, whereas the species part begins with a lower-case letter."}]},{"id":"b00f7160-6adc-4ace-a8aa-3bb3a8f2724b","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why is writing only sapiens not enough?","back":"The full binomial is needed; the second word is not unique enough.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The full binomial is needed; the second word is not unique enough.","correct":true,"explanation":"The species word may occur in binomials belonging to different genera. Including both the genus and species parts uniquely identifies the intended species."},{"text":"The family name is needed; the second word identifies the genus.","correct":false,"explanation":"The second word is the species part, not the genus, and a family name is not included. Identification requires the full genus-species binomial."},{"text":"The common name is needed; the second word only identifies the genus.","correct":false,"explanation":"Common names are not required in scientific nomenclature, and the second word does not identify the genus. The full binomial supplies both genus and species information."},{"text":"The first word is optional; the second word is always unique.","correct":false,"explanation":"The species word can be shared by species in different genera, so it is not always unique. The first word supplies the essential genus name."}]},{"id":"c64b63de-3cfa-4119-8d4f-3e402f4da8f1","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why are binomial names useful across countries?","back":"Common names vary, but binomials are internationally recognised.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Common names vary, but binomials are internationally recognised.","correct":true,"explanation":"Different languages and regions may use different common names for the same organism. Internationally recognised binomials provide scientists with a consistent, unambiguous naming system."},{"text":"Common names are universal, but binomials differ between countries.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the relationship. Common names vary among languages and regions, whereas a species’ accepted binomial is internationally recognised by scientists."},{"text":"Binomials are translated, so each country uses a different scientific name.","correct":false,"explanation":"Binomials are not routinely translated into local versions. Their international consistency allows scientists in different countries to refer unambiguously to the same species."},{"text":"Common names are Latin, while binomials are written in local languages.","correct":false,"explanation":"This swaps the naming systems. Binomials use a standard Latin or Latinised form, while common names belong to local languages and can vary geographically."}]},{"id":"d1a7d7f9-4819-4fc6-a143-fed422fdf691","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"In immunology, what does strong antibody binding between species' proteins indicate?","back":"Their proteins are similar.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Their proteins are similar.","correct":true,"explanation":"Antibodies bind to antigens with complementary shapes. Strong binding to another species’ protein therefore indicates that its structure and amino acid sequence are similar."},{"text":"Their proteins are identical.","correct":false,"explanation":"Strong binding indicates structural similarity, not necessarily complete identity. Antibodies can bind strongly even when proteins have some differences in their amino acid sequences."},{"text":"Their proteins are different.","correct":false,"explanation":"Substantially different proteins would usually have differently shaped antigenic sites and weaker antibody binding. Strong binding instead indicates that the proteins are similar."},{"text":"Their proteins are unrelated.","correct":false,"explanation":"Unrelated proteins are unlikely to share sufficiently similar antigenic sites for strong binding. Strong antibody binding provides evidence that the proteins are similar."}]},{"id":"1caf409c-c3ed-4a29-a652-a6b97a8fa73f","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why do similar proteins suggest a more recent common ancestor?","back":"Similar proteins usually mean similar genes.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Similar proteins usually mean similar genes.","correct":true,"explanation":"Genes determine proteins’ amino acid sequences. Similar proteins therefore usually arise from similar DNA base sequences inherited from a relatively recent common ancestor."},{"text":"Similar proteins usually mean similar environments.","correct":false,"explanation":"Environmental similarity does not directly explain matching amino acid sequences. Similar proteins usually reflect similar genes inherited from a more recent common ancestor."},{"text":"Similar proteins usually mean similar diets.","correct":false,"explanation":"A shared diet may produce similar adaptations, but it does not directly determine protein sequences. Similar proteins usually indicate similar inherited genes."},{"text":"Similar proteins usually mean similar antibodies.","correct":false,"explanation":"Antibodies may be used to compare proteins, but they are not the underlying cause of protein similarity. Similar proteins usually result from similar genes."}]},{"id":"64109f64-c015-4297-9c14-3639eb3e2eb6","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Genome sequencing determines the order of [ ] in [ ].","back":"Genome sequencing determines the order of bases in DNA.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Genome sequencing determines the order of bases in DNA.","correct":true,"explanation":"Genome sequencing identifies the precise order of nucleotide bases along an organism’s DNA, allowing genetic sequences from different organisms to be compared."},{"text":"Genome sequencing determines the order of genes in DNA.","correct":false,"explanation":"A completed genome may reveal gene locations, but sequencing specifically determines the order of nucleotide bases in DNA, not simply the order of genes."},{"text":"Genome sequencing determines the order of bases in proteins.","correct":false,"explanation":"Bases are components of nucleic acids, not proteins. Genome sequencing determines the order of bases in DNA; proteins instead consist of amino acids."},{"text":"Genome sequencing determines the order of amino acids in proteins.","correct":false,"explanation":"Determining amino acid order is protein sequencing rather than genome sequencing. Genome sequencing establishes the order of nucleotide bases in DNA."}]},{"id":"4a540e06-0186-4efd-8f40-2db785bb49d3","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What do fewer DNA base differences between species suggest?","back":"A closer evolutionary relationship.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A closer evolutionary relationship.","correct":true,"explanation":"Fewer DNA base differences indicate that less time has passed for mutations to accumulate since the species diverged from their common ancestor."},{"text":"A more distant evolutionary relationship.","correct":false,"explanation":"More distantly related species generally have more base differences because mutations have accumulated for longer. Fewer differences indicate a closer evolutionary relationship."},{"text":"A higher rate of mutation.","correct":false,"explanation":"A higher mutation rate would generally create more, not fewer, base differences over time. Fewer differences instead support a closer evolutionary relationship."},{"text":"A more recent origin of DNA.","correct":false,"explanation":"The comparison concerns when the species diverged, not when DNA originated. Fewer base differences suggest a more recent common ancestor and closer evolutionary relationship."}]}]}],"examCountdown":{"examDate":"2027-05-13","paperLabel":"Paper 1"},"heading":"Species and taxonomy","title":"Species and taxonomy Flashcards","topbar":{"backHref":"/as-level/biology/aqa/flashcards"},"topicSidebar":"$L37"}]}],"topicId":"2b22cd0a-b7d0-5e73-93a8-9c0fd352b640","walled":"$L38"}],"$L39","$L3a"]