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features expressed in an organism’s phenotype."},{"text":"Chromosome number - the karyotype.","correct":false,"explanation":"Chromosome number reveals major chromosomal differences but not the many smaller DNA variations traditionally inferred from phenotype. Scientists traditionally compared observable characteristics expressed in organisms."},{"text":"Environmental conditions - the habitat.","correct":false,"explanation":"Environmental conditions can influence phenotype, but they are not themselves evidence of DNA differences. Scientists traditionally inferred genetic variation from observable characteristics - the phenotype."},{"text":"Protein sequences - the proteome.","correct":false,"explanation":"Protein sequences can indicate genetic differences, but this is a molecular comparison rather than the traditional method. Traditionally, scientists compared observable characteristics - the phenotype."}]},{"id":"14d7c714-b2d0-4d91-949b-98694821dd3a","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Many observable characteristics are [ ], meaning they are controlled by more than one gene.","back":"Many observable characteristics are polygenic, meaning they are controlled by more than one gene.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"polygenic","correct":true,"explanation":"A polygenic characteristic is controlled by two or more genes, whose combined effects commonly produce continuous variation in the phenotype."},{"text":"monogenic","correct":false,"explanation":"A monogenic characteristic is controlled by a single gene, not several genes. The required term is polygenic, meaning controlled by more than one gene."},{"text":"allelic","correct":false,"explanation":"Allelic describes alternative versions of one gene rather than control by multiple genes. Characteristics influenced by more than one gene are described as polygenic."},{"text":"discontinuous","correct":false,"explanation":"Discontinuous describes variation falling into distinct categories and does not specify how many genes control the trait. The correct term for multi-gene control is polygenic."}]},{"id":"f47bfe1f-bf54-468c-a48f-0c42c5e2aaec","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why do polygenic traits make phenotype-based diversity unreliable?","back":"Several genes affect one trait, so one mutation cannot be identified.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Several genes affect one trait, so one mutation cannot be identified.","correct":true,"explanation":"Polygenic traits result from the combined action of several genes, so a phenotypic difference cannot usually be attributed to one identifiable mutation."},{"text":"One gene affects several traits, so every mutation can be identified.","correct":false,"explanation":"Polygenic inheritance concerns several genes affecting one trait, not one gene affecting several traits. Consequently, a phenotypic difference cannot be linked reliably to one mutation."},{"text":"Several environments affect one trait, so one habitat cannot be identified.","correct":false,"explanation":"Environmental influence can also complicate phenotype comparisons, but it does not define why polygenic traits are unreliable. Several genes affect each polygenic trait, obscuring any single mutation’s effect."},{"text":"Several alleles affect one trait, so every mutation can be identified.","correct":false,"explanation":"A polygenic trait is not controlled by several alleles of one gene. It is influenced by several different genes, preventing one mutation from being identified from phenotype alone."}]},{"id":"c183923e-3bbd-4e84-b07d-9ef124e9cd9f","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How can the environment mask genetic diversity when using phenotype?","back":"The environment can alter phenotype despite genetic potential.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The environment can alter phenotype despite genetic potential.","correct":true,"explanation":"Environmental factors such as nutrition or temperature can change how a genotype is expressed, causing genetically different organisms to develop similar phenotypes or vice versa."},{"text":"The genotype can alter DNA despite environmental potential.","correct":false,"explanation":"Mutations change genetic material rather than merely masking existing genetic diversity through phenotype. The environment can modify the phenotype produced from an organism’s genetic potential."},{"text":"The selection pressure can alter genotype despite phenotypic potential.","correct":false,"explanation":"Natural selection changes allele frequencies across generations rather than directly masking genetic variation within an organism’s phenotype. Environmental conditions can alter phenotype despite genetic potential."},{"text":"The reproduction method can alter genotype despite phenotypic potential.","correct":false,"explanation":"Reproduction passes genetic information to offspring but does not explain environmental masking of diversity. Environmental factors can alter an organism’s phenotype without changing its genetic potential."}]},{"id":"7818eb20-fd98-499e-a44a-e015b49c6923","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Gene technology lets biologists extract genetic material and read the [ ] directly.","back":"Gene technology lets biologists extract genetic material and read the sequence directly.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"sequence","correct":true,"explanation":"Gene technology allows the order of bases in extracted genetic material to be determined, so biologists can compare the nucleotide sequence directly."},{"text":"phenotype","correct":false,"explanation":"Phenotype refers to observable characteristics and is influenced by both genes and environment. Gene technology instead allows the genetic sequence to be read directly."},{"text":"chromosome","correct":false,"explanation":"A chromosome is a whole DNA-containing structure, not the ordered information being read. Gene technology directly determines the base sequence of extracted genetic material."},{"text":"frequency","correct":false,"explanation":"Frequency describes how often a characteristic or allele occurs in a population, not what sequencing equipment reads. The directly read information is the genetic sequence."}]},{"id":"0a03f3ea-8035-44ea-b963-d78c002c84da","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Besides molecular sequences, what observable data can be compared quantitatively?","back":"Frequency of measurable characteristics.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Frequency of measurable characteristics.","correct":true,"explanation":"Recording how frequently measurable characteristics occur enables numerical comparisons between populations, even when direct DNA or protein sequence data are not being used."},{"text":"Colour of visible characteristics.","correct":false,"explanation":"The colour of visible characteristics is qualitative unless converted into defined measurements or categories. Quantitative comparison uses the frequency of measurable characteristics."},{"text":"Location of inherited characteristics.","correct":false,"explanation":"The location of inherited characteristics does not provide a quantitative comparison of observable variation. Biologists can instead compare the frequency of measurable characteristics."},{"text":"Function of behavioural characteristics.","correct":false,"explanation":"The function of behavioural characteristics describes their role rather than their numerical occurrence. Quantitative diversity comparisons can use the frequency of measurable characteristics."}]},{"id":"f2aafe2e-89f8-4e77-b8e9-e403577eb501","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which sequence comparison is the most accurate measure of diversity?","back":"The DNA base sequence.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The DNA base sequence.","correct":true,"explanation":"Comparing DNA base sequences detects genetic differences directly and at the finest level, including changes that may not alter proteins or observable characteristics."},{"text":"The amino acid sequence.","correct":false,"explanation":"Amino acid sequences provide useful molecular evidence, but the genetic code is degenerate, so some DNA substitutions do not change amino acids. DNA base sequences are therefore more accurate."},{"text":"The protein shape sequence.","correct":false,"explanation":"Protein shape can be affected by amino acid sequence and environmental conditions, making it less direct and detailed than comparing the DNA base sequence itself."},{"text":"The chromosome band sequence.","correct":false,"explanation":"Chromosome banding reveals large-scale structural similarities and differences but misses individual nucleotide substitutions. Comparing the DNA base sequence gives the most accurate measure."}]},{"id":"c6225f15-8e26-47a7-9f05-8e8ffb83f4eb","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why do closely related species have similar DNA sequences?","back":"They share a recent common ancestor, so fewer mutations accumulated.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They share a recent common ancestor, so fewer mutations accumulated.","correct":true,"explanation":"Closely related species diverged from a common ancestor relatively recently, leaving less evolutionary time for mutations to produce differences between their DNA sequences."},{"text":"They share a distant common ancestor, so fewer mutations accumulated.","correct":false,"explanation":"A distant common ancestor allows more, not fewer, mutations to accumulate independently. Closely related species share a recent common ancestor and therefore retain more similar DNA."},{"text":"They occupy a similar ecological niche, so fewer mutations accumulated.","correct":false,"explanation":"Similar environments may produce analogous adaptations through convergent evolution, but they do not make DNA sequences broadly alike. Similarity reflects inheritance from a recent common ancestor."},{"text":"They have a rapid mutation rate, so fewer mutations accumulated.","correct":false,"explanation":"A faster mutation rate would generally increase sequence differences after divergence rather than preserve similarity. Closely related species have similar DNA because their common ancestor was recent."}]},{"id":"1c173c43-e5b1-49a0-b885-3e5452111494","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What does a larger number of sequence differences suggest about two species?","back":"They shared a common ancestor longer ago.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They shared a common ancestor longer ago.","correct":true,"explanation":"More sequence differences usually accumulate over time as mutations occur, so the species are likely to have diverged from their common ancestor further in the past."},{"text":"They shared a common ancestor more recently.","correct":false,"explanation":"A recent common ancestor would usually leave fewer sequence differences. Greater genetic divergence indicates that the species have had longer to accumulate mutations since splitting."},{"text":"They shared a common ancestor at the same time.","correct":false,"explanation":"Species cannot be inferred to share an ancestor at exactly the same time from sequence differences. A larger difference indicates a longer period since their lineages diverged."},{"text":"They shared a common ancestor in the future.","correct":false,"explanation":"Common ancestors existed in the past, not the future. More sequence differences suggest greater evolutionary divergence and therefore a common ancestor further back in time."}]},{"id":"ab868702-f135-4a14-bbed-d2f1ef536197","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"mRNA sequence comparison works because mRNA is [ ] directly from DNA.","back":"mRNA sequence comparison works because mRNA is transcribed directly from DNA.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"transcribed","correct":true,"explanation":"mRNA is produced by transcription using a DNA strand as a template, so comparing mRNA sequences can reveal differences in the corresponding genes."},{"text":"translated","correct":false,"explanation":"Translation produces a polypeptide from mRNA at a ribosome. DNA is copied into mRNA by transcription, which is why mRNA sequence comparisons reflect DNA differences."},{"text":"replicated","correct":false,"explanation":"Replication makes a copy of DNA, whereas mRNA is synthesised from a DNA template during transcription. Confusing these processes gives the wrong term for the sentence."},{"text":"mutated","correct":false,"explanation":"Mutation changes a DNA sequence but does not describe how mRNA is made. The correct process is transcription, in which RNA is synthesised from DNA."}]},{"id":"f167cae7-8f07-4401-8f53-437c12127b7d","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What must be true of a protein used for amino acid sequence comparison?","back":"It must be shared by the organisms compared.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It must be shared by the organisms compared.","correct":true,"explanation":"A protein can be compared only if each organism produces the same protein or a homologous version of it, allowing corresponding amino acid sequences to be aligned."},{"text":"It must be unique to each organism compared.","correct":false,"explanation":"Unique proteins cannot provide corresponding sequences for comparison between organisms. The protein must be shared so differences in its amino acids can be assessed."},{"text":"It must be absent from the organisms compared.","correct":false,"explanation":"A protein that is absent cannot provide an amino acid sequence for analysis. Comparison requires the same protein, or a homologous protein, in the organisms studied."},{"text":"It must be different in every organism compared.","correct":false,"explanation":"The organisms need corresponding versions of the protein, not completely unrelated proteins. Shared proteins allow sequence differences to reflect evolutionary relationships."}]},{"id":"515ff7f6-36fc-4189-9278-58668e31ab13","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"The genetic code is [ ], so several triplets can code for one amino acid.","back":"The genetic code is degenerate, so several triplets can code for one amino acid.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"degenerate","correct":true,"explanation":"The genetic code is degenerate because more than one codon, or triplet, can specify the same amino acid, particularly because of variation at the third base."},{"text":"universal","correct":false,"explanation":"A universal genetic code means that the same codons generally specify the same amino acids across organisms. It does not mean that several codons code for one amino acid."},{"text":"non-overlapping","correct":false,"explanation":"A non-overlapping code means each base is read as part of only one codon in a reading frame. It does not describe multiple triplets specifying one amino acid."},{"text":"continuous","correct":false,"explanation":"A continuous code refers to codons being read consecutively without punctuation between them. The term for several triplets coding for one amino acid is degenerate."}]},{"id":"292809f2-ab5c-4f4e-becf-702e2be9ac4f","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why is DNA sequence comparison more sensitive than amino acid sequence comparison?","back":"The degenerate code allows DNA changes without amino acid changes.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The degenerate code allows DNA changes without amino acid changes.","correct":true,"explanation":"Because several codons can specify the same amino acid, a DNA base change may be silent at the protein level. DNA comparison can therefore detect more differences."},{"text":"The universal code prevents DNA changes without amino acid changes.","correct":false,"explanation":"The universal code describes similarity of codon meanings between organisms, not sensitivity to mutations. Degeneracy allows some DNA changes to leave amino acid sequences unchanged."},{"text":"The degenerate code prevents DNA changes without amino acid changes.","correct":false,"explanation":"Degeneracy has the opposite effect: different codons can produce the same amino acid. This makes DNA comparison more sensitive because silent base changes remain detectable."},{"text":"The non-overlapping code converts every DNA change into an amino acid change.","correct":false,"explanation":"A non-overlapping reading pattern does not ensure that every base substitution changes an amino acid. The degenerate code allows synonymous DNA changes, making DNA comparison more sensitive."}]},{"id":"2986ab91-cf1d-4f43-9726-dd2872715eb1","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Why are samples used when investigating variation in a population?","back":"Measuring every individual is practically impossible.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Measuring every individual is practically impossible.","correct":true,"explanation":"Populations may contain very large numbers of individuals, making a census costly, time-consuming, or impossible. A representative sample provides a manageable way to estimate variation."},{"text":"Measuring every individual gives no useful information.","correct":false,"explanation":"Measuring every individual would provide extensive information, but it is usually impractical rather than useless. Samples are used to obtain representative data with fewer resources."},{"text":"Measuring every individual always produces biased results.","correct":false,"explanation":"A complete census is not automatically biased; it can be highly representative. Samples are used mainly because measuring every individual is usually practically impossible."},{"text":"Measuring every individual changes the population's genes.","correct":false,"explanation":"Taking measurements does not necessarily alter the genes of the population. Sampling is needed because a full population census is generally too difficult or resource-intensive."}]},{"id":"1687a369-7887-4ffd-bcc7-9b5a568504bc","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Random sampling reduces [ ] so the sample better represents the [ ].","back":"Random sampling reduces bias so the sample better represents the population.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Random sampling reduces bias so the sample better represents the population.","correct":true,"explanation":"Random selection gives individuals an equal chance of being chosen, reducing researcher or location bias and making the sample more representative of the whole population."},{"text":"Random sampling reduces variation so the sample better represents the individual.","correct":false,"explanation":"Random sampling does not reduce biological variation or aim to represent one individual. It reduces bias so that the sample reflects the wider population."},{"text":"Random sampling reduces reliability so the sample better represents the environment.","correct":false,"explanation":"Random sampling is intended to improve, not reduce, reliability, and the sample should represent the population rather than merely the environment. Its key benefit is reducing bias."},{"text":"Random sampling reduces diversity so the sample better represents the species.","correct":false,"explanation":"Sampling should not reduce the population's biological diversity, and species is not the precise target here. Random selection reduces bias and represents the population being investigated."}]},{"id":"913b19ad-c735-405a-816c-2ff6797e073d","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"How can a field grid be made for random sampling?","back":"Lay two tape measures at right angles.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Lay two tape measures at right angles.","correct":true,"explanation":"Two tape measures placed at right angles create perpendicular coordinates across the study area. Random coordinate values can then identify unbiased sampling positions on the grid."},{"text":"Lay two tape measures parallel to each other.","correct":false,"explanation":"Parallel tape measures do not establish two independent coordinates across the area. Right-angled measures provide the perpendicular grid lines needed to locate random sampling points."},{"text":"Lay two quadrats at right angles.","correct":false,"explanation":"Quadrats are used to sample organisms within an area, not to create the coordinate grid. Two tape measures at right angles provide the reference axes for random sampling."},{"text":"Lay one tape measure at right angles.","correct":false,"explanation":"A single tape measure provides only one line or coordinate. Two tape measures at right angles are required to define positions in both dimensions of the sampling area."}]},{"id":"772ef1d8-4a76-4716-b88a-a07c063dee3b","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How should a quadrat position be chosen randomly on a field grid?","back":"

Generate coordinates using a random number generator.
Place the quadrat at those coordinates.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Generate coordinates using a random number generator.
Place the quadrat at those coordinates.

","correct":true,"explanation":"Randomly generated grid coordinates prevent the investigator from choosing preferred locations, reducing selection bias and making the quadrat sample more representative of the field."},{"text":"

Generate coordinates using a fixed sampling interval.
Place the quadrat at those coordinates.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Using equal intervals is systematic sampling rather than random sampling. Random sampling requires coordinates from a random number generator, followed by placing the quadrat at those coordinates."},{"text":"

Choose coordinates using the most representative areas.
Place the quadrat at those coordinates.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Selecting apparently representative locations introduces investigator bias because the choice depends on personal judgement. Coordinates should instead be generated using a random number generator."},{"text":"

Choose coordinates along the edge of the field.
Place the quadrat at those coordinates.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Restricting quadrats to the field boundary creates biased edge sampling and may miss variation elsewhere. Randomly generated coordinates should cover the entire field grid."}]},{"id":"3dc8789b-9a2b-48ec-b993-4c1f15781e3c","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What limitation does the mean have when comparing variation?","back":"It does not show the spread of data.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It does not show the spread of data.","correct":true,"explanation":"The mean identifies the central value but gives no indication of how tightly or widely individual observations are distributed around it."},{"text":"It does not show the mean of data.","correct":false,"explanation":"The mean can be calculated from continuous data and is commonly used for it. Its limitation is that it does not describe the spread of the observations."},{"text":"It does not show the sample size of data.","correct":false,"explanation":"Sample size can be stated separately and is not the aspect of variation measured by the mean. The mean’s relevant limitation is that it does not show spread."},{"text":"It does not show the centre of data.","correct":false,"explanation":"The mean is specifically a measure of central tendency, so it does indicate the centre of a dataset. It does not, however, show how spread out the values are."}]},{"id":"47eeea0a-1495-4dad-a930-83616237f180","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"A standard deviation range is calculated as [ ] $\\pm$ [ ].","back":"A standard deviation range is calculated as mean $\\pm$ standard deviation.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A standard deviation range is calculated as mean $\\pm$ standard deviation.","correct":true,"explanation":"A standard deviation range extends one standard deviation below and above the mean, so its endpoints are found using the mean minus or plus the standard deviation."},{"text":"A standard deviation range is calculated as median $\\pm$ standard deviation.","correct":false,"explanation":"The median is a measure of central tendency but is not used for this calculation. A standard deviation range is calculated using the mean plus or minus the standard deviation."},{"text":"A standard deviation range is calculated as mean $\\pm$ range.","correct":false,"explanation":"The range is the difference between the maximum and minimum values, not the dispersion measure used here. The required calculation is mean plus or minus standard deviation."},{"text":"A standard deviation range is calculated as mode $\\pm$ variance.","correct":false,"explanation":"Mode and variance are related statistical concepts but do not form a standard deviation range. The correct centre is the mean and the correct spread measure is standard deviation."}]},{"id":"8dd5ebb5-0c58-4235-b570-a4843f1e0c53","cardType":"basic","points":3,"front":"Contrast a small and large standard deviation.","back":"

Small SD: values clustered close to the mean.
Large SD: values spread widely from the mean.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Small SD: values clustered close to the mean.
Large SD: values spread widely from the mean.

","correct":true,"explanation":"Standard deviation measures dispersion around the mean. A small value indicates tight clustering, whereas a large value indicates that observations are more widely dispersed."},{"text":"

Small SD: values spread widely from the mean.
Large SD: values clustered close to the mean.

","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the interpretation of standard deviation. A small standard deviation means close clustering around the mean, while a large one means greater spread from it."},{"text":"

Small SD: values clustered close to zero.
Large SD: values spread widely from zero.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Standard deviation describes distances from the mean, not distances from zero. A dataset may have a small standard deviation even when all its values are far from zero."},{"text":"

Small SD: values obtained from a small sample.
Large SD: values obtained from a large sample.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Standard deviation does not directly identify the number of observations in a sample. It describes whether those observations are clustered close to or spread widely from the mean."}]},{"id":"c04a6222-71c3-43f6-a7bd-d7eeb3973fcd","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"If two standard deviation ranges overlap, what is the conclusion?","back":"The difference is likely due to chance and not significant.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The difference is likely due to chance and not significant.","correct":true,"explanation":"Overlapping standard deviation ranges indicate that the observed difference could plausibly result from natural variation within the samples, so it is likely due to chance and not significant."},{"text":"The difference is likely not due to chance and significant.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the usual interpretation of overlapping ranges. Overlap suggests that natural variation could explain the difference, making it likely due to chance and not significant."},{"text":"The difference is definitely due to chance and not significant.","correct":false,"explanation":"Overlap does not prove with certainty that chance caused the difference. It supports the more cautious conclusion that the difference is likely due to chance and not significant."},{"text":"The difference is likely impossible to assess and not comparable.","correct":false,"explanation":"The ranges can still be compared when they overlap. Their overlap indicates that the difference is likely due to chance rather than being statistically significant."}]},{"id":"a14af190-e6f9-429c-9e70-ccd6d43052a9","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"If two standard deviation ranges do not overlap, what is the conclusion?","back":"The difference is likely significant and not due to chance.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The difference is likely significant and not due to chance.","correct":true,"explanation":"Non-overlapping standard deviation ranges suggest that ordinary variation within the samples is unlikely to account for the observed difference, so the difference is likely significant."},{"text":"The difference is likely not significant and due to chance.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the interpretation of non-overlapping ranges. A lack of overlap suggests that the difference is likely significant and cannot readily be explained by chance variation."},{"text":"The difference is definitely significant and not due to chance.","correct":false,"explanation":"Non-overlap supports significance but does not justify absolute certainty from standard deviation ranges alone. The appropriate conclusion is that the difference is likely significant and not due to chance."},{"text":"The difference is likely impossible to assess and not comparable.","correct":false,"explanation":"The absence of overlap does not prevent comparison. Instead, it provides evidence that the observed difference is likely significant rather than arising from chance variation."}]}]}],"examCountdown":{"examDate":"2027-05-13","paperLabel":"Paper 1"},"heading":"Investigating diversity","title":"Investigating diversity Flashcards","topbar":{"backHref":"/as-level/biology/aqa/flashcards"},"topicSidebar":"$L37"}]}],"topicId":"1afbe7d8-cacc-51a9-8854-25e3a4bd4d27","walled":"$L38"}],"$L39","$L3a"]