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24:[["$","$L33",null,{"feature":"flashcards"}],"$L34",["$","$L35",null,{"href":"/as-level/biology/aqa/as-inorganic-ions/flashcards","label":"Inorganic ions","subjectCode":"as_level_biology__aqa","surface":"flashcards"}],["$","$L36",null,{"runner":["$","div",null,{"className":"min-h-0 flex-1 overflow-hidden bg-background","children":["$","$L37",null,{"decks":[{"id":"041cc881-e523-41d2-a1ed-74876469d324","title":"Inorganic ions Flashcards","topicId":"482abea5-01ee-5e77-a402-e656ffc5d600","topicSlug":"as-inorganic-ions","cards":[{"id":"b4f6a918-58af-480e-88cf-4e735c4c4bd3","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"In biology, inorganic ions are usually found [ ], dissolved in water.","back":"In biology, inorganic ions are usually found in solution, dissolved in water.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"in solution","correct":true,"explanation":"Inorganic ions are charged particles, so they generally separate and disperse among water molecules rather than forming large biological molecules or remaining as solid crystals."},{"text":"as solid crystals","correct":false,"explanation":"Solid crystals do not describe the usual state of inorganic ions in cells; ions are generally dissolved in water, so the correct term is “in solution”."},{"text":"as covalent molecules","correct":false,"explanation":"Covalent molecules contain atoms joined by shared electrons, whereas inorganic ions carry electrical charges and are usually found dissolved in water, in solution."},{"text":"as lipid droplets","correct":false,"explanation":"Lipid droplets are non-polar storage structures and do not describe dissolved charged particles; inorganic ions are usually present in solution in biological systems."}]},{"id":"52e48f9e-d2b8-45d6-a05d-fc1a7d7326f7","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which ion’s concentration determines pH?","back":"Hydrogen ions, H⁺.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Hydrogen ions, H⁺.","correct":true,"explanation":"pH measures hydrogen ion concentration, so changes in the concentration of H⁺ directly determine whether a solution is more acidic or alkaline."},{"text":"Hydroxide ions, OH^-.","correct":false,"explanation":"Hydroxide concentration is related to alkalinity, but pH is defined by hydrogen ion concentration. The ion that determines pH is hydrogen ions, H⁺."},{"text":"Sodium ions, Na⁺.","correct":false,"explanation":"Sodium ions affect ionic balance and water potential, but they do not define pH. pH is determined by the concentration of hydrogen ions, H⁺."},{"text":"Chloride ions, Cl^-.","correct":false,"explanation":"Chloride ions contribute to ion balance and electrical neutrality, not directly to pH. The concentration determining pH is that of hydrogen ions, H⁺."}]},{"id":"7b11a806-dc96-48e6-94a7-84fda736de58","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"A lower pH means a [ ].","back":"A lower pH means a higher H⁺ concentration.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"higher H⁺ concentration","correct":true,"explanation":"Because pH is inversely related to hydrogen ion concentration, a lower pH indicates more H⁺ ions present in the solution."},{"text":"lower H⁺ concentration","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the inverse relationship between pH and hydrogen ions. A lower pH means a higher H⁺ concentration, not a lower one."},{"text":"higher OH^- concentration","correct":false,"explanation":"A higher hydroxide ion concentration generally indicates a more alkaline solution and therefore a higher pH. A lower pH instead means a higher H⁺ concentration."},{"text":"lower water concentration","correct":false,"explanation":"pH does not indicate the amount of water present; it reflects hydrogen ion concentration. A lower pH therefore means a higher H⁺ concentration."}]},{"id":"b110a457-40bb-433d-9636-2e6f7cbe278d","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What is the equation linking pH to hydrogen ion concentration?","back":"pH = -log₁₀[H⁺].","mcqOptions":[{"text":"pH = -log₁₀[H⁺].","correct":true,"explanation":"pH is defined as the negative base-10 logarithm of hydrogen ion concentration, so this equation correctly links pH with [H⁺]."},{"text":"pH = log₁₀[H⁺].","correct":false,"explanation":"Omitting the negative sign reverses the relationship, making greater hydrogen ion concentration appear to give a higher pH. The correct equation includes -log₁₀."},{"text":"pH = -log₁₀[OH^-].","correct":false,"explanation":"This uses hydroxide ions instead of hydrogen ions. Although hydroxide is related to pH, the defining equation is pH = -log₁₀[H⁺]."},{"text":"pH = 10^[H⁺].","correct":false,"explanation":"This incorrectly treats pH as an exponential function of hydrogen ion concentration. The correct relationship is the negative base-10 logarithm: pH = -log₁₀[H⁺]."}]},{"id":"1d6afbe1-75a6-439c-adc2-8076b695dc72","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How does H⁺ concentration at pH 5 compare with pH 7?","back":"pH 5 has 100 times higher H⁺ concentration.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"pH 5 has 100 times higher H⁺ concentration.","correct":true,"explanation":"The pH difference is 2 units, and each unit represents a tenfold change. Therefore pH 5 has 10 × 10 = 100 times the H⁺ concentration of pH 7."},{"text":"pH 5 has 2 times higher H⁺ concentration.","correct":false,"explanation":"The two-unit pH difference is not a simple twofold change. Each pH unit represents a tenfold change, so pH 5 has 100 times higher H⁺ concentration."},{"text":"pH 5 has 20 times higher H⁺ concentration.","correct":false,"explanation":"Multiplying the pH difference by ten gives 20, but pH is logarithmic. Two pH units represent 10², so the correct comparison is 100 times higher."},{"text":"pH 5 has 1000 times higher H⁺ concentration.","correct":false,"explanation":"A 1000-fold difference would require a three-unit pH difference, such as pH 4 compared with pH 7. The two-unit difference here gives 100 times higher concentration."}]},{"id":"f7e76cc5-86bf-44f5-9c0d-49d76a44a484","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How can increased H⁺ reduce enzyme activity?","back":"

Changes charges on amino acid side chains.
Disrupts hydrogen/ionic bonds, changing active site shape.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Changes charges on amino acid side chains.
Disrupts hydrogen/ionic bonds, changing active site shape.

","correct":true,"explanation":"Extra H⁺ ions alter the charges of amino acid side chains, which can disrupt hydrogen and ionic bonds and change the active site’s shape."},{"text":"

Changes charges on amino acid side chains.
Disrupts peptide bonds, changing active site shape.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Changes in pH mainly disrupt hydrogen and ionic bonds rather than peptide bonds in the primary structure. The correct mechanism is altered charges followed by disrupted hydrogen/ionic bonds."},{"text":"

Breaks covalent bonds in substrates.
Disrupts hydrogen/ionic bonds, changing active site shape.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Enzyme activity is reduced because the enzyme’s amino acid charges and bonding change, not because H⁺ breaks covalent bonds in substrates. The correct first step is altered side-chain charges."},{"text":"

Changes charges on amino acid side chains.
Strengthens hydrogen/ionic bonds, changing active site shape.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Increased H⁺ disrupts existing hydrogen and ionic bonds rather than strengthening them. The correct sequence is changed side-chain charges followed by bond disruption and active-site distortion."}]},{"id":"dd3e2a10-b0f0-4141-9c6a-4f8aa0529ee2","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Where is Fe²⁺ located in haemoglobin?","back":"In the haem group.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"In the haem group.","correct":true,"explanation":"The Fe²⁺ ion is held in the haem group of haemoglobin, where it provides the binding site for oxygen."},{"text":"In the globin polypeptide.","correct":false,"explanation":"Globin forms the protein part surrounding haem, but the Fe²⁺ ion is specifically located in the haem group, which binds oxygen."},{"text":"In the blood plasma.","correct":false,"explanation":"Blood plasma transports dissolved substances but does not contain the Fe²⁺ binding site of haemoglobin. The ion is located in the haem group."},{"text":"In the active site.","correct":false,"explanation":"An active site is a region of an enzyme, whereas haemoglobin contains a haem group. The Fe²⁺ ion is located in that haem group."}]},{"id":"b4c934ae-9153-4125-9db9-2d8f7c2cc342","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Oxygen binds [ ] to Fe²⁺ in haemoglobin.","back":"Oxygen binds reversibly to Fe²⁺ in haemoglobin.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"reversibly","correct":true,"explanation":"Oxygen must bind reversibly to Fe²⁺ so haemoglobin can load oxygen where its concentration is high and release it where oxygen is needed."},{"text":"irreversibly","correct":false,"explanation":"Irreversible binding would prevent haemoglobin from releasing oxygen to respiring tissues. Oxygen binds reversibly to Fe²⁺, allowing repeated loading and unloading."},{"text":"covalently","correct":false,"explanation":"A permanent covalent bond would not allow oxygen transport and release. Oxygen binds reversibly to Fe²⁺ through an interaction that can be broken."},{"text":"randomly","correct":false,"explanation":"Oxygen binding is specific and controlled by haemoglobin’s Fe²⁺ ion, not random. The binding is reversible so oxygen can be transported and released."}]},{"id":"00aee693-13d5-4d27-b993-72d363d93790","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why does Fe²⁺ allow haemoglobin to transport oxygen?","back":"Oxygen binds reversibly, so haemoglobin can load and unload oxygen.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Oxygen binds reversibly, so haemoglobin can load and unload oxygen.","correct":true,"explanation":"Fe²⁺ forms a reversible bond with oxygen. This allows haemoglobin to associate with oxygen in the lungs and dissociate from it in respiring tissues."},{"text":"Oxygen binds irreversibly, so haemoglobin cannot unload oxygen.","correct":false,"explanation":"Irreversible binding would prevent oxygen from being released to respiring tissues. The correct answer is reversible binding, which allows haemoglobin to load and unload oxygen."},{"text":"Oxygen is chemically reduced, so haemoglobin releases energy.","correct":false,"explanation":"Oxygen is not reduced when it binds to haemoglobin; its reduction occurs during oxidative phosphorylation. Fe²⁺ instead binds oxygen reversibly, permitting loading and unloading."},{"text":"Oxygen binds to the globin chains, so iron is not involved.","correct":false,"explanation":"Oxygen binds reversibly to Fe²⁺ within haem groups, not directly to the globin polypeptides. The iron ion is therefore essential for oxygen transport."}]},{"id":"221a2ab7-5cde-48f6-8cfb-6e4355020a0d","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What happens if too few iron ions are available?","back":"Fewer functional haemoglobin molecules are produced.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Fewer functional haemoglobin molecules are produced.","correct":true,"explanation":"Iron provides the Fe²⁺ in each haem group that binds oxygen. Insufficient iron therefore limits the production of functional haemoglobin molecules."},{"text":"More functional haemoglobin molecules are produced.","correct":false,"explanation":"Iron deficiency cannot increase functional haemoglobin production because iron is required to form haem groups. Too few iron ions therefore result in fewer functional haemoglobin molecules."},{"text":"Fewer functional haemoglobin molecules are broken down.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses haemoglobin production with its degradation. A shortage of iron limits haem group formation, so fewer functional haemoglobin molecules are produced."},{"text":"Fewer haemoglobin genes are inherited.","correct":false,"explanation":"Iron availability does not alter how many haemoglobin genes an individual inherits. It affects haem group formation, resulting in fewer functional haemoglobin molecules being produced."}]},{"id":"037dbdb6-9785-4da4-b30c-78e74679a6f5","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why can iron deficiency lower ATP production in tissues?","back":"

Less haemoglobin transports less oxygen.
Oxygen is the final electron acceptor.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Less haemoglobin transports less oxygen.
Oxygen is the final electron acceptor.

","correct":true,"explanation":"Reduced haemoglobin lowers oxygen delivery to tissues. Oxygen accepts electrons at the end of the electron transport chain, so its shortage reduces oxidative phosphorylation and ATP production."},{"text":"

Less haemoglobin transports less carbon dioxide.
Carbon dioxide is the final electron acceptor.

","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses oxygen transport with carbon dioxide transport and assigns carbon dioxide the wrong respiratory role. Less haemoglobin delivers less oxygen, which is the final electron acceptor."},{"text":"

Less haemoglobin transports more oxygen.
Oxygen is the final electron donor.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Less haemoglobin cannot increase oxygen transport, and oxygen accepts rather than donates electrons. Reduced oxygen delivery therefore limits the electron transport chain and ATP production."},{"text":"

Less haemoglobin transports less oxygen.
Hydrogen is the final electron acceptor.

","correct":false,"explanation":"The first link is correct, but hydrogen is not the final electron acceptor in aerobic respiration. Oxygen accepts electrons and combines with protons to form water."}]},{"id":"ca5e11b2-99ee-4229-ab3c-250fd61cd70a","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What creates the Na⁺ gradient in ileum epithelial cells?","back":"The sodium-potassium pump transports Na⁺ out.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The sodium-potassium pump transports Na⁺ out.","correct":true,"explanation":"The sodium-potassium pump uses ATP to move Na⁺ from the epithelial cell into the blood, maintaining a low intracellular Na⁺ concentration and a steep gradient."},{"text":"The sodium-potassium pump transports Na⁺ in.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the pump’s direction. The sodium-potassium pump actively transports Na⁺ out of the epithelial cell, creating the gradient used for co-transport."},{"text":"The sodium-glucose co-transporter transports Na⁺ out.","correct":false,"explanation":"The co-transporter allows Na⁺ to enter from the gut lumen alongside glucose. The sodium-potassium pump creates the gradient by transporting Na⁺ out."},{"text":"The potassium ion channel transports Na⁺ out.","correct":false,"explanation":"Potassium channels are selective for K⁺ and do not actively remove Na⁺. The sodium-potassium pump uses ATP to transport Na⁺ out of the cell."}]},{"id":"c07a941f-cdc0-4e55-b72b-bf2eb8352e94","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"The sodium-potassium pump makes Na⁺ concentration [ ] the epithelial cell.","back":"The sodium-potassium pump makes Na⁺ concentration low inside the epithelial cell.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"low inside","correct":true,"explanation":"The sodium-potassium pump actively removes Na⁺ from the epithelial cell. This maintains a low Na⁺ concentration inside, allowing Na⁺ to diffuse in from the gut lumen."},{"text":"high inside","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the concentration gradient produced by the pump. Active removal of Na⁺ makes its concentration low inside the epithelial cell, not high."},{"text":"low outside","correct":false,"explanation":"The important effect is a low Na⁺ concentration inside the epithelial cell. This intracellular shortage drives Na⁺ entry from the gut lumen through co-transporters."},{"text":"equal inside and outside","correct":false,"explanation":"Equal concentrations would remove the Na⁺ gradient needed for co-transport. The sodium-potassium pump keeps Na⁺ concentration low inside the epithelial cell."}]},{"id":"39bcdf41-4ebc-435c-94e3-b5516f923ffe","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"During ileum co-transport, which way do Na⁺ ions diffuse?","back":"From the gut lumen into the epithelial cell.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"From the gut lumen into the epithelial cell.","correct":true,"explanation":"Na⁺ concentration is lower inside the epithelial cell because of the sodium-potassium pump. Na⁺ therefore diffuses from the gut lumen into the cell down its gradient."},{"text":"From the epithelial cell into the gut lumen.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the direction of Na⁺ diffusion during co-transport. Na⁺ moves down its concentration gradient from the gut lumen into the epithelial cell."},{"text":"From the blood into the epithelial cell.","correct":false,"explanation":"Na⁺ enters across the membrane facing the gut lumen, not from the blood. It diffuses from the lumen into the epithelial cell through a co-transporter."},{"text":"From the gut lumen into the blood capillary.","correct":false,"explanation":"This incorrectly skips the epithelial cell. During co-transport, Na⁺ first diffuses from the gut lumen into an epithelial cell through its apical membrane."}]},{"id":"0d8d6b88-91b7-42f8-9c14-7657383d696a","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What substances are carried into epithelial cells with Na⁺?","back":"Glucose or amino acids.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Glucose or amino acids.","correct":true,"explanation":"Specific co-transporter proteins use the Na⁺ concentration gradient to carry glucose or amino acids from the gut lumen into ileum epithelial cells."},{"text":"Potassium ions or chloride ions.","correct":false,"explanation":"These ions are not the organic nutrients carried by the ileum’s Na⁺-dependent nutrient co-transporters. The transported substances are glucose or amino acids."},{"text":"Fatty acids or glycerol.","correct":false,"explanation":"Fatty acids and glycerol are absorbed by routes associated with lipid digestion, not by these Na⁺ co-transporters. Na⁺ carries glucose or amino acids into the cells."},{"text":"Oxygen or carbon dioxide.","correct":false,"explanation":"Respiratory gases cross membranes by simple diffusion rather than Na⁺-dependent co-transport. The substances carried with Na⁺ are glucose or amino acids."}]},{"id":"d1f9a62c-37cc-4627-b28a-77fa0bba3749","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Glucose and amino acids enter with Na⁺ through a specific [ ], not by simple diffusion.","back":"Glucose and amino acids enter with Na⁺ through a specific co-transporter protein, not by simple diffusion.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"co-transporter protein","correct":true,"explanation":"A co-transporter protein binds Na⁺ together with glucose or an amino acid and changes shape, carrying both substances across the epithelial cell membrane."},{"text":"channel protein","correct":false,"explanation":"A channel provides a hydrophilic pore but does not bind and carry Na⁺ together with an organic nutrient. A specific co-transporter protein performs this process."},{"text":"uniporter protein","correct":false,"explanation":"A uniporter transports one type of substance independently, whereas this mechanism moves Na⁺ with glucose or an amino acid. It therefore requires a co-transporter protein."},{"text":"pump protein","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses the co-transporter with the ATP-driven sodium-potassium pump. Entry from the lumen occurs through a co-transporter protein using the existing Na⁺ gradient."}]},{"id":"39760698-0d70-49e9-973a-962447990774","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why is Na⁺ co-transport called secondary active transport?","back":"ATP is used indirectly to power the sodium-potassium pump.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"ATP is used indirectly to power the sodium-potassium pump.","correct":true,"explanation":"ATP powers the sodium-potassium pump, which establishes the Na⁺ electrochemical gradient. The co-transporter then uses energy stored in this gradient rather than hydrolysing ATP itself."},{"text":"ATP is used directly by the sodium-glucose co-transporter.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses secondary with primary active transport. The co-transporter does not hydrolyse ATP directly; ATP indirectly supplies energy by powering the sodium-potassium pump that creates the Na⁺ gradient."},{"text":"Na⁺ moves passively, so no ATP is involved.","correct":false,"explanation":"Although Na⁺ moves down its gradient through the co-transporter, ATP was required to create that gradient. ATP therefore powers the process indirectly through the sodium-potassium pump."},{"text":"ATP is used directly to open sodium ion channels.","correct":false,"explanation":"This mistakes co-transport for ATP-gated channel activity. ATP instead powers the sodium-potassium pump, producing the Na⁺ gradient that drives sodium-glucose co-transport indirectly."}]},{"id":"611d8898-1e06-439c-b250-5618239edf13","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Predict the effect of inhibiting the sodium-potassium pump on glucose absorption.","back":"

Na⁺ gradient becomes smaller.
Less glucose enters by co-transport.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Na⁺ gradient becomes smaller.
Less glucose enters by co-transport.

","correct":true,"explanation":"Inhibiting the pump reduces active Na⁺ removal from the cell, weakening its electrochemical gradient. Less Na⁺ then enters through co-transporters, so glucose uptake decreases."},{"text":"

Na⁺ gradient becomes larger.
More glucose enters by co-transport.

","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the pump’s role in maintaining the gradient. Inhibition allows intracellular Na⁺ to rise, making the gradient smaller and reducing glucose entry by co-transport."},{"text":"

Na⁺ gradient becomes smaller.
More glucose enters by co-transport.

","correct":false,"explanation":"The first effect is right, but the consequence is reversed. A smaller Na⁺ gradient provides less energy for co-transport, so less glucose enters the cell."},{"text":"

Na⁺ gradient remains unchanged.
Less glucose enters by diffusion.

","correct":false,"explanation":"This overlooks the pump’s role in generating the Na⁺ gradient and misidentifies the uptake mechanism. The gradient becomes smaller, reducing glucose entry specifically by co-transport."}]},{"id":"2eb5a1e2-3feb-4a11-880a-b6526e6e3fbf","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Where are phosphate groups found in DNA?","back":"In the sugar-phosphate backbone.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"In the sugar-phosphate backbone.","correct":true,"explanation":"Phosphate groups alternate with deoxyribose sugars to form the external backbone of each DNA strand. Phosphodiester bonds link the phosphate of one nucleotide to neighbouring sugars."},{"text":"In the nitrogenous base pairs.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses the central paired bases with the strand’s structural framework. Phosphate groups occur in the sugar-phosphate backbone, while hydrogen bonds connect complementary nitrogenous bases."},{"text":"In the hydrogen bonds.","correct":false,"explanation":"Hydrogen bonds are attractions between complementary bases and do not contain phosphate. Phosphate groups are part of the sugar-phosphate backbone joined by phosphodiester bonds."},{"text":"In the deoxyribose sugars.","correct":false,"explanation":"This treats phosphate as part of the sugar molecule itself. Deoxyribose and phosphate are separate components that alternate to form DNA’s sugar-phosphate backbone."}]},{"id":"864aa865-8d3b-448c-9f6e-bb165cadd854","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"ATP contains adenine, ribose and [ ].","back":"ATP contains adenine, ribose and three phosphate groups.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"three phosphate groups","correct":true,"explanation":"ATP consists of the nitrogenous base adenine, the pentose sugar ribose and a chain of three phosphate groups, whose hydrolysis can transfer usable energy."},{"text":"one phosphate group","correct":false,"explanation":"This describes the phosphate number in AMP rather than ATP. The prefix “tri-” in adenosine triphosphate indicates that ATP contains three phosphate groups."},{"text":"two phosphate groups","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses ATP with ADP, which is adenosine diphosphate. ATP is adenosine triphosphate and therefore contains three phosphate groups attached to adenosine."},{"text":"four phosphate groups","correct":false,"explanation":"This is an off-by-one error caused by adding a phosphate to ATP’s actual total. ATP contains three phosphate groups, as indicated by “triphosphate” in its name."}]},{"id":"33003b9b-4535-423d-88e4-753776584541","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What are the products of ATP hydrolysis?","back":"ADP and inorganic phosphate.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"ADP and inorganic phosphate.","correct":true,"explanation":"Hydrolysis breaks the bond to ATP’s terminal phosphate group by adding water. This produces adenosine diphosphate and inorganic phosphate while releasing energy for cellular processes."},{"text":"ATP and inorganic phosphate.","correct":false,"explanation":"This leaves ATP unchanged despite hydrolysis removing its terminal phosphate. The reaction converts ATP into ADP and inorganic phosphate, releasing energy that cells can couple to other processes."},{"text":"ADP and glucose.","correct":false,"explanation":"This incorrectly treats glucose as a fragment of ATP. ATP hydrolysis removes its terminal phosphate group, producing ADP and inorganic phosphate rather than a carbohydrate."},{"text":"Adenine and ribose.","correct":false,"explanation":"This assumes hydrolysis splits ATP into its base and sugar components. Standard ATP hydrolysis removes one terminal phosphate, producing ADP and inorganic phosphate instead."}]},{"id":"fb09e90b-bd8e-4631-b3d0-daf8afacaafe","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why can low phosphate limit DNA replication?","back":"Each new nucleotide needs a phosphate group.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Each new nucleotide needs a phosphate group.","correct":true,"explanation":"Every DNA nucleotide includes a phosphate group, which helps form the sugar-phosphate backbone. A limited phosphate supply can therefore restrict nucleotide production and slow DNA replication."},{"text":"Each new nucleotide needs a sulfate group.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses phosphate with another sulfur-containing inorganic ion. DNA nucleotides contain phosphate groups, which join with sugars to form the backbone, so low phosphate can restrict replication."},{"text":"Each new amino acid needs a phosphate group.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses DNA replication with protein synthesis. DNA is assembled from nucleotides, and each nucleotide requires phosphate to contribute to the sugar-phosphate backbone."},{"text":"Each new nucleotide needs a nitrate ion.","correct":false,"explanation":"This mistakes nitrate, a source of nitrogen for some organisms, for a structural DNA component. Each nucleotide contains phosphate, so phosphate shortage can limit DNA synthesis."}]},{"id":"e3e191fa-571e-44bb-98a9-0137314896d5","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why can low phosphate limit ATP production?","back":"ATP contains phosphate groups.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"ATP contains phosphate groups.","correct":true,"explanation":"ATP is adenosine triphosphate and contains three phosphate groups. If phosphate availability is low, cells may be unable to produce ATP at the required rate."},{"text":"ATP contains nitrate groups.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses phosphate with another inorganic ion involved in plant mineral nutrition. ATP contains three phosphate groups, so low phosphate availability can restrict its production."},{"text":"ATP contains sulfate groups.","correct":false,"explanation":"Sulfate supplies sulfur for compounds such as sulfur-containing amino acids, but it is not part of ATP. ATP contains phosphate groups, making phosphate essential for its production."},{"text":"ATP contains carbonate groups.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses ATP’s phosphate groups with carbonate ions involved in other chemical systems. ATP contains three phosphate groups, so insufficient phosphate can limit ATP synthesis."}]}]}],"examCountdown":{"examDate":"2027-05-13","paperLabel":"Paper 1"},"heading":"Inorganic ions","title":"Inorganic ions Flashcards","topbar":{"backHref":"/as-level/biology/aqa/flashcards"},"topicSidebar":"$L38"}]}],"topicId":"482abea5-01ee-5e77-a402-e656ffc5d600","walled":"$L39"}],"$L3a","$L3b"]