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In sociology, [ ] are beliefs about what is important, desirable, right or wrong.

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In sociology, values are beliefs about what is important, desirable, right or wrong.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"values","correct":true,"explanation":"Values are beliefs or judgements about what is important, desirable, right or wrong, and they may influence sociologists’ choices and interpretations."},{"text":"norms","correct":false,"explanation":"Norms are shared rules or expectations governing behaviour, rather than beliefs about what is desirable or right. The correct term is values."},{"text":"roles","correct":false,"explanation":"Roles are sets of expectations attached to particular social positions, not beliefs about importance or morality. Such beliefs are called values."},{"text":"sanctions","correct":false,"explanation":"Sanctions are rewards or punishments used to encourage conformity to norms. Beliefs about what is important, desirable, right or wrong are values."}]},{"id":"5af7b4d7-1715-4b8b-b00b-22dccf2cfaff","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"

Objective research is based on [ ] rather than personal opinion, and is open to checking, criticism and [ ].

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Objective research is based on evidence rather than personal opinion, and is open to checking, criticism and replication.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Objective research is based on evidence rather than personal opinion, and is open to checking, criticism and replication.

","correct":true,"explanation":"Evidence makes findings independent of personal opinion, while replication allows other researchers to repeat the study and assess whether its results are dependable."},{"text":"

Objective research is based on intuition rather than personal opinion, and is open to checking, criticism and replication.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Intuition relies on personal impressions and therefore cannot provide the basis for objectivity. Objective research is based on evidence and must be open to replication."},{"text":"

Objective research is based on evidence rather than personal opinion, and is open to checking, criticism and approval.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Approval indicates agreement rather than independent testing. Objective research is based on evidence and remains open to replication by other researchers."},{"text":"

Objective research is based on values rather than personal opinion, and is open to checking, criticism and persuasion.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Values and persuasion can reflect personal commitments rather than objective testing. Objective research instead relies on evidence and is open to replication."}]},{"id":"d9414f00-1eb4-4c40-8018-f9d5eb786a60","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"

Subjectivity means knowledge or interpretation shaped by a person’s [ ], feelings, identity or social position.

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Subjectivity means knowledge or interpretation shaped by a person’s viewpoint, feelings, identity or social position.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"viewpoint","correct":true,"explanation":"Subjectivity arises when knowledge or interpretation is influenced by an individual’s viewpoint, feelings, identity or position within society."},{"text":"method","correct":false,"explanation":"A method is the procedure used to collect or analyse evidence, not the personal perspective shaping interpretation. The correct term is viewpoint."},{"text":"sample","correct":false,"explanation":"A sample is the group selected for study and may affect representativeness, but subjectivity specifically refers to influence from a person’s viewpoint."},{"text":"dataset","correct":false,"explanation":"A dataset contains information used in research rather than a person’s interpretive perspective. Subjectivity means interpretation shaped by the individual’s viewpoint."}]},{"id":"f7538925-2207-41e4-ac8d-5a029262ce7b","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"

If analysis is value-free, what should not drive the conclusion?

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The researcher’s personal values.

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The researcher’s personal values.

","correct":true,"explanation":"Value-free analysis requires conclusions to follow the evidence and reasoning rather than being determined by the researcher’s own moral or political beliefs."},{"text":"

The researcher’s available evidence.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Available evidence should drive a properly supported conclusion rather than be excluded from it. Value freedom means preventing the researcher’s personal values from determining the result."},{"text":"

The researcher’s research findings.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Research findings should inform the conclusion because they represent what the investigation discovered. It is the researcher’s personal values that should not drive analysis."},{"text":"

The researcher’s logical reasoning.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Logical reasoning is necessary for connecting evidence to a justified conclusion. Value-free analysis excludes the researcher’s personal values, not reasoned evaluation."}]},{"id":"f1495002-36e3-41f3-84b8-1f08568ee3ae","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"

What did Durkheim argue suicide rates were shaped by?

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Social facts external to individuals.

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Social facts external to individuals.

","correct":true,"explanation":"Durkheim treated suicide rates as social phenomena shaped by external social facts, particularly differing levels of social integration and moral regulation."},{"text":"

Individual motives internal to individuals.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Focusing on private motives treats suicide as purely individual. Durkheim argued that social facts external to individuals shape patterned differences in suicide rates."},{"text":"

Biological instincts inherited by individuals.

","correct":false,"explanation":"A biological explanation overlooks Durkheim’s finding that suicide rates vary systematically with social conditions. He attributed these patterns to external social facts."},{"text":"

Random choices unique to individuals.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Random individual choices cannot explain the stable patterns Durkheim observed between social groups. He argued that external social facts shape suicide rates."}]},{"id":"e10bf20e-10a9-4cbf-9cb2-2e9c97d8d5ed","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"

What does Weber’s verstehen aim to understand?

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Social action from the actor’s point of view.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Social action from the actor’s point of view.

","correct":true,"explanation":"Verstehen is Weber’s method of interpretive understanding, seeking to grasp the meanings and motives that actors attach to their social actions."},{"text":"

Social structures from the state’s point of view.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Verstehen does not prioritise the state’s perspective or explain society only through structures. It aims to understand social action from the actor’s point of view."},{"text":"

Biological behaviour from the scientist’s point of view.

","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses interpretive sociology with an external biological explanation. Verstehen examines meaningful social action from the viewpoint of the person acting."},{"text":"

Official statistics from the researcher’s point of view.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Official statistics are a source of quantitative data, whereas verstehen focuses on subjective meaning. It seeks to understand social action from the actor’s perspective."}]},{"id":"72eb2440-fe99-42b1-b957-30cfabbc51ca","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"

Weber’s [ ] allows values in topic choice; [ ] requires evidence-based analysis.

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Weber’s value relevance allows values in topic choice; value neutrality requires evidence-based analysis.

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Weber’s value relevance allows values in topic choice; value neutrality requires evidence-based analysis.

","correct":true,"explanation":"Weber accepted that researchers’ values influence which topics they consider significant, but argued that subsequent analysis should remain neutral and evidence-based."},{"text":"

Weber’s value neutrality allows values in topic choice; value relevance requires evidence-based analysis.

","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses Weber’s distinction. Value relevance permits values to guide topic selection, while value neutrality requires analysis and conclusions to follow evidence."},{"text":"

Weber’s value freedom allows values in topic choice; value neutrality requires evidence-based analysis.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Value freedom does not name Weber’s principle for choosing topics according to their cultural importance. That principle is value relevance, followed by value-neutral analysis."},{"text":"

Weber’s value relevance allows values in topic choice; value commitment requires evidence-based analysis.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Value commitment suggests adherence to a moral or political position, not impartial analysis. Weber called the requirement for evidence-based analysis value neutrality."}]},{"id":"de127457-11e8-499b-a979-cad4047ba766","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"

For Weber, what can data alone not settle about benefit sanctions?

","back":"

Whether sanctions are morally right.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Whether sanctions are morally right.

","correct":true,"explanation":"Data can reveal the effects and distribution of sanctions, but deciding whether they are morally right requires a value judgement that evidence alone cannot supply."},{"text":"

Whether sanctions are widely used.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Administrative data can establish how widely sanctions are used, making this an empirical question. Data alone cannot determine whether sanctions are morally right."},{"text":"

Whether sanctions are typically long-lasting.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Records can measure the duration of sanctions, so this is an empirical issue. Data alone cannot decide the value question of whether sanctions are morally right."},{"text":"

Whether sanctions are associated with hardship.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Research can examine the relationship between sanctions and hardship using empirical evidence. It cannot by itself settle the moral judgement of whether sanctions are right."}]},{"id":"dd80301f-3a59-484a-a68b-e34c81377614","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"

Why can two identical school absences have different sociological meanings?

","back":"

The same behaviour may have different reasons.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

The same behaviour may have different reasons.

","correct":true,"explanation":"Identical observable actions can arise from different motives and circumstances. Understanding their sociological meaning therefore requires examining the reasons participants attach to their behaviour."},{"text":"

The same behaviour always has the same cause.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Assuming one fixed cause ignores the meanings and circumstances behind human action. The same behaviour may have different reasons, giving apparently identical absences different sociological meanings."},{"text":"

The same behaviour always has different consequences.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Different consequences may follow, but they do not explain why the absences have different meanings. The key point is that the same behaviour may have different reasons."},{"text":"

The same behaviour can only have one meaning.

","correct":false,"explanation":"This treats behaviour as objectively meaningful without considering actors’ interpretations. The same behaviour may have different reasons, so its meaning depends on the participant’s situation and motives."}]},{"id":"944151be-105e-4efe-a4cc-960e91b2ffb0","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"

Why do positivists prefer structured questionnaires, experiments and official statistics?

","back":"

They can be standardised and repeated.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

They can be standardised and repeated.

","correct":true,"explanation":"Standardised methods collect information consistently and allow studies to be replicated. Positivists value this reliability because repeated research can test whether similar results are obtained."},{"text":"

They can be flexible and personalised.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Flexibility and personalisation are associated more closely with interpretivist methods such as unstructured interviews. Positivists prefer methods that can be standardised and repeated to produce reliable data."},{"text":"

They can be empathetic and participant-led.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Empathy and participant-led discussion aim to uncover subjective meanings, which is an interpretivist priority. Positivists favour these methods because they can be standardised and repeated."},{"text":"

They can be informal and open-ended.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Informal, open-ended research is difficult to replicate and is usually favoured by interpretivists seeking validity. Positivists prefer structured methods because they can be standardised and repeated."}]},{"id":"b2298129-be05-436f-b300-f6fc64ecb9c6","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"

What is one AO3 criticism of Census categories?

","back":"

They are institution-created and may miss lived identities.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

They are institution-created and may miss lived identities.

","correct":true,"explanation":"Census categories are designed by official institutions rather than emerging directly from people’s experiences. Consequently, fixed classifications may fail to represent complex or changing lived identities."},{"text":"

They are participant-created and may prevent comparisons.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Census respondents do not generally create the official categories themselves. The criticism is that categories are institution-created and may therefore overlook people’s lived identities."},{"text":"

They are researcher-created and may change during interviews.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Changing categories during interviews describes flexible qualitative research, not Census classification. Census categories are institution-created and may miss identities that do not fit predefined official choices."},{"text":"

They are community-created and may exaggerate lived identities.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Official Census categories are not simply created by the communities being classified. The AO3 criticism is that institution-created categories may miss, rather than exaggerate, lived identities."}]},{"id":"7a9e39a1-956a-4da1-ac26-08fdeeb1dcd9","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"

What strength do interpretivists claim for unstructured interviews and participant observation?

","back":"

High validity: capturing participants’ real social life.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

High validity: capturing participants’ real social life.

","correct":true,"explanation":"These flexible, in-depth methods allow researchers to understand participants’ meanings and experiences in context. Interpretivists therefore argue that they produce highly valid accounts of real social life."},{"text":"

High reliability: producing identical results every time.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Unstructured interviews and participant observation are difficult to reproduce identically, so reliability is not their main strength. Interpretivists instead claim high validity because these methods capture participants’ real social life."},{"text":"

High representativeness: including every social group equally.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Qualitative studies often use small or non-random samples, so representativeness cannot be assumed. Their claimed strength is high validity through capturing participants’ real social life."},{"text":"

High objectivity: removing the researcher from social life.

","correct":false,"explanation":"These methods involve close interaction and interpretation, rather than removing the researcher. Interpretivists value their high validity because involvement helps capture participants’ real social life."}]},{"id":"10b300a2-64ff-4473-a4f3-e4a744d16005","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"

Why may interpretivist research be less reliable?

","back":"

It is harder to repeat exactly.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

It is harder to repeat exactly.

","correct":true,"explanation":"Interpretivist research is flexible and shaped by particular relationships and settings, making exact replication difficult. Other researchers may therefore obtain different findings, reducing reliability."},{"text":"

It is harder to measure validity.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Interpretivists usually regard validity as a strength because their methods explore meanings in depth. Reliability may be lower because flexible research is harder to repeat exactly."},{"text":"

It is harder to observe behaviour.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Participant observation is specifically designed to observe behaviour in social settings. The reliability problem is that the researcher’s distinctive role and relationships make the study harder to repeat exactly."},{"text":"

It is harder to avoid statistics.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Interpretivist research commonly avoids or de-emphasises statistical data, so this is not the reliability problem. It is less reliable because its flexible procedures are harder to repeat exactly."}]},{"id":"7ac1442d-ec0e-4aa4-a9f9-f36989023bd4","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"

Values can enter research through the [ ] used, such as “underachievement”, “deviance” or “family breakdown”.

","back":"

Values can enter research through the concepts used, such as “underachievement”, “deviance” or “family breakdown”.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"concepts","correct":true,"explanation":"Concepts such as “deviance” classify and interpret social behaviour rather than merely describing it. Their definitions can reflect assumptions and values, influencing how a research topic is understood."},{"text":"samples","correct":false,"explanation":"Sampling decisions can introduce values, but “underachievement”, “deviance” and “family breakdown” are not samples. They are concepts whose definitions may contain value judgements."},{"text":"methods","correct":false,"explanation":"Methods are procedures such as questionnaires or observation, not labels such as “deviance”. These examples are concepts, and their value-laden definitions can shape the research."},{"text":"variables","correct":false,"explanation":"Variables are measurable characteristics that can take different values, whereas these examples are interpretive labels. They are concepts through which researchers’ assumptions and values may enter research."}]},{"id":"450ac5b4-674d-4e09-af15-ba12a011ac73","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"

What happens if a researcher only selects evidence supporting a starting belief?

","back":"

The research loses credibility and becomes propaganda-like.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

The research loses credibility and becomes propaganda-like.

","correct":true,"explanation":"Selecting only supportive evidence is confirmation bias. By suppressing contradictory findings, the researcher prevents balanced evaluation, so the study loses credibility and resembles propaganda."},{"text":"

The research gains reliability and becomes easier to repeat.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Selective evidence does not make procedures consistent or replicable. It creates confirmation bias, causing the research to lose credibility and become propaganda-like rather than more reliable."},{"text":"

The research gains validity and becomes participant-led.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Choosing evidence to fit an existing belief does not improve the accuracy of the account or give participants control. It undermines credibility and makes the research propaganda-like."},{"text":"

The research loses representativeness and becomes too statistical.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Representativeness concerns whether a sample reflects the wider population, not whether conflicting evidence is excluded. Selective use of evidence reduces credibility and makes research propaganda-like."}]},{"id":"3ffbfa48-bbd0-42fb-8f11-a42b770c459b","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"

What question did Becker use to challenge neutral sociology?

","back":"

Whose side are we on?

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Whose side are we on?

","correct":true,"explanation":"Becker argued that sociologists inevitably take sides through their topics, concepts and interpretations. His question challenges the claim that sociology can ever be completely neutral."},{"text":"

Can sociology be scientific?

","correct":false,"explanation":"This is a broad methodological debate, but it is not Becker’s famous challenge to neutrality. Becker asked “Whose side are we on?” to expose the values behind sociological work."},{"text":"

Who benefits from capitalism?

","correct":false,"explanation":"This question fits Marxist analysis of class interests rather than Becker’s challenge to value neutrality. Becker asked “Whose side are we on?” to highlight researchers’ unavoidable commitments."},{"text":"

What is a social fact?

","correct":false,"explanation":"Social facts are associated with Durkheim’s positivist sociology, not Becker’s argument about taking sides. Becker challenged neutral sociology by asking “Whose side are we on?”"}]},{"id":"c2559285-e30c-49dd-843f-9b09488566eb","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"

According to Gouldner, what can pretending to be neutral hide?

","back":"

Values built into research, funding and wider society.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Values built into research, funding and wider society.

","correct":true,"explanation":"Gouldner argued that claims of neutrality can conceal the values influencing research choices, funding priorities and the wider social context in which sociology is produced."},{"text":"

Sampling errors caused only by small sample sizes.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Sampling errors concern how representative a sample is, not Gouldner’s critique of neutrality. He argued that neutrality can hide values embedded in research, funding and wider society."},{"text":"

Social norms learned exclusively during primary socialisation.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Primary socialisation explains how norms are learned, but it is not Gouldner’s point here. He argued that claims of neutrality conceal values within research, funding and society."},{"text":"

Interview effects produced solely by closed questions.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Interview effects involve the influence of researchers or question design on responses. Gouldner instead argued that apparent neutrality can conceal values built into research, funding and wider society."}]},{"id":"8a49aa4e-a735-4149-8dc4-9bb419c9e4e9","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"

What do Marxists argue sociology should expose?

","back":"

Class exploitation and ideology.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Class exploitation and ideology.

","correct":true,"explanation":"Marxists argue that sociology should reveal how capitalist class relations exploit workers and how ruling-class ideology disguises or justifies this unequal system."},{"text":"

Value consensus and social integration.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Value consensus and social integration are central functionalist concerns. Marxists instead believe sociology should expose class exploitation and the ideology that legitimises capitalist inequality."},{"text":"

Patriarchal oppression and gender inequality.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Patriarchal oppression and gender inequality are primarily feminist concerns. Marxists focus on exposing class exploitation and ruling-class ideology within capitalist society."},{"text":"

Labelling processes and negotiated meanings.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Labelling and negotiated meanings are associated with interactionism. Marxists argue that sociology should expose capitalist class exploitation and the ideology supporting it."}]},{"id":"d9198caa-a089-4414-825a-8e4c226bbabf","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"

What did Oakley criticise about traditional interviewing?

","back":"

Detached, hierarchical interviewing.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Detached, hierarchical interviewing.

","correct":true,"explanation":"Oakley criticised conventional interviews for maintaining distance and a power hierarchy between researcher and participant, advocating a more reciprocal and empathetic relationship."},{"text":"

Reciprocal, empathetic interviewing.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Reciprocity and empathy describe the approach Oakley supported, not the one she criticised. Her target was traditional interviewing that remained detached and hierarchical."},{"text":"

Equal, collaborative interviewing.

","correct":false,"explanation":"An equal, collaborative relationship is closer to Oakley’s preferred feminist interviewing style. She criticised traditional interviews for being detached and hierarchical."},{"text":"

Personal, non-hierarchical interviewing.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Personal involvement and reduced hierarchy reflect Oakley’s proposed alternative to conventional methods. She criticised traditional interviewing for being detached and hierarchical."}]},{"id":"ecc84faf-aa32-4eb2-8ca1-f0258a36e5b6","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"

Postmodernists argue knowledge is shaped by language, discourse, media and [ ].

","back":"

Postmodernists argue knowledge is shaped by language, discourse, media and power.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"power","correct":true,"explanation":"Postmodernists emphasise power because dominant institutions and groups can shape discourse, establish accepted meanings and influence which claims are treated as legitimate knowledge."},{"text":"consensus","correct":false,"explanation":"Consensus is more strongly associated with functionalist explanations of shared values. Postmodernists emphasise power because it shapes discourse and determines which accounts gain authority."},{"text":"instinct","correct":false,"explanation":"Instinct suggests knowledge arises naturally from biological impulses, which contradicts the postmodernist emphasis on social construction. The missing term is power, exercised through discourse and institutions."},{"text":"evolution","correct":false,"explanation":"Evolution is a biological process rather than the postmodernist mechanism highlighted here. The missing term is power, which influences discourse and accepted definitions of truth."}]},{"id":"cbab4f9d-c541-4d95-9e51-ff72befe078b","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"

For Foucault, what can institutions define through knowledge and power?

","back":"

Categories such as normal, deviant, mad or criminal.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Categories such as normal, deviant, mad or criminal.

","correct":true,"explanation":"Foucault argued that institutions use expert knowledge and power to classify people, constructing categories such as normality, deviance, madness and criminality."},{"text":"

Categories such as bourgeois, proletarian, ruling or working.

","correct":false,"explanation":"These are class categories associated primarily with Marxist analysis. Foucault focused on how institutional knowledge and power define people as normal, deviant, mad or criminal."},{"text":"

Categories such as traditional, affective, rational or habitual.

","correct":false,"explanation":"This resembles Weberian classifications of social action rather than Foucault’s argument. Foucault examined institutional definitions of normality, deviance, madness and criminality."},{"text":"

Categories such as sacred, profane, collective or individual.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Sacred and profane are concepts associated with Durkheim’s sociology of religion. Foucault focused on institutional categories such as normal, deviant, mad or criminal."}]},{"id":"6ebe3008-a195-4176-b0a1-b1fb0dc48e05","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"

Why is treating all knowledge as just viewpoints a problem?

","back":"

It weakens evidence-based challenges to racism, sexism or misinformation.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

It weakens evidence-based challenges to racism, sexism or misinformation.

","correct":true,"explanation":"If every claim is treated as merely one viewpoint, evidence loses its authority, making it harder to demonstrate that racism, sexism and misinformation are harmful or false."},{"text":"

It guarantees universal agreement among researchers, governments and social groups.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Treating knowledge as competing viewpoints is more likely to prevent agreement than guarantee it. The real problem is that it weakens evidence-based challenges to racism, sexism and misinformation."},{"text":"

It makes quantitative methods impossible to use in sociological research.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Relativism questions whether evidence can establish superior claims, but it does not make quantitative methods impossible. Its danger is weakening evidence-based opposition to racism, sexism and misinformation."},{"text":"

It proves official statistics are always accurate, objective and value-free.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Viewing all knowledge as subjective does not prove official statistics are perfectly objective. Instead, it can undermine the evidence needed to challenge racism, sexism and misinformation."}]}]}],"examCountdown":{"examDate":"2027-05-14","paperLabel":"Paper 1"},"heading":"Subjectivity, objectivity and value freedom","title":"Subjectivity, objectivity and value freedom Flashcards","topbar":{"backHref":"/a-level/sociology/aqa/flashcards"},"topicSidebar":"$L3a"}]}],"topicId":"fa476b8c-4332-5c69-945e-414089988039","walled":"$L3b"}],"$L3c","$L3d"]