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ethical and theoretical considerations. Sociologists use this framework to assess whether a proposed study is possible, acceptable and theoretically worthwhile."},{"text":"PEST.","correct":false,"explanation":"PEST analyses political, economic, social and technological influences, usually on organisations. The correct framework is PET, covering practical, ethical and theoretical considerations in sociological research."},{"text":"SMART.","correct":false,"explanation":"SMART is commonly used to formulate objectives that are specific and measurable, not to assess research choices. PET examines the practical, ethical and theoretical suitability of research."},{"text":"SWOT.","correct":false,"explanation":"SWOT assesses strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats rather than sociological research considerations. PET asks whether research is practically possible, ethically acceptable and theoretically suitable."}]},{"id":"1939317c-d6ef-45f8-9ec9-0844cbb39bc9","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"The PET framework asks whether research is practically [ ] and ethically [ ].","back":"The PET framework asks whether research is practically possible and ethically acceptable.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The PET framework asks whether research is practically possible and ethically acceptable.","correct":true,"explanation":"Practical considerations determine whether research is possible with the available time, money and access, while ethical considerations determine whether its treatment of participants is acceptable."},{"text":"The PET framework asks whether research is practically acceptable and ethically possible.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the two criteria. Practical considerations concern whether a study is possible, whereas ethical considerations concern whether its methods and treatment of participants are acceptable."},{"text":"The PET framework asks whether research is practically valid and ethically reliable.","correct":false,"explanation":"Validity and reliability are methodological qualities rather than the practical and ethical tests named here. PET asks whether research is practically possible and ethically acceptable."},{"text":"The PET framework asks whether research is practically representative and ethically objective.","correct":false,"explanation":"Representativeness and objectivity relate to evidence quality and researcher influence, not these PET criteria. The framework asks whether research is practically possible and ethically acceptable."}]},{"id":"f2460e31-10f6-4b79-a85e-61f40b9cde0f","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which research stage means deciding what social issue to investigate?","back":"Choice of topic.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Choice of topic.","correct":true,"explanation":"The choice of topic is the stage at which researchers decide which social issue, group, relationship or behaviour they intend to investigate."},{"text":"Choice of method(s).","correct":false,"explanation":"The choice of methods determines how evidence will be collected, not which social issue will be studied. Deciding the issue to investigate is the choice of topic."},{"text":"Conduct of research.","correct":false,"explanation":"The conduct of research concerns how the study is carried out, including ethical treatment and accurate recording. Selecting the social issue occurs during the choice of topic."},{"text":"Analysis of findings.","correct":false,"explanation":"Analysis happens after data have been collected and involves interpreting patterns or meanings. Deciding which social issue to investigate is the earlier choice-of-topic stage."}]},{"id":"7b044d08-41f7-4e5c-baf1-bc7e6ecb4ee6","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which research stage means deciding how data will be collected?","back":"Choice of method(s).","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Choice of method(s).","correct":true,"explanation":"The choice of methods determines the techniques used to collect data, such as questionnaires, interviews, observations, experiments or the analysis of secondary sources."},{"text":"Choice of topic.","correct":false,"explanation":"The choice of topic identifies the social issue to investigate, not the data-collection technique. Deciding how data will be gathered is the choice of method or methods."},{"text":"Conduct of research.","correct":false,"explanation":"Conduct refers to carrying out the planned study responsibly and accurately. The earlier decision about interviews, questionnaires or other data-collection techniques is the choice of methods."},{"text":"Analysis of findings.","correct":false,"explanation":"Analysis involves interpreting data after collection rather than deciding how to gather it. Selecting the data-collection technique belongs to the choice-of-methods stage."}]},{"id":"3dfd7cbc-ebe5-4b23-a11b-4e00bb836e24","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which research stage covers consent, participant protection and accurate recording?","back":"Conduct of research.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Conduct of research.","correct":true,"explanation":"The conduct of research covers what researchers do while carrying out a study, including gaining consent, protecting participants and recording their evidence accurately."},{"text":"Choice of topic.","correct":false,"explanation":"Choosing a topic means selecting the social issue to investigate. Consent, participant protection and accurate data recording concern how the study is conducted."},{"text":"Choice of method(s).","correct":false,"explanation":"Choosing methods determines whether data will be collected through interviews, questionnaires or other techniques. Applying consent, protection and accurate recording belongs to the conduct of research."},{"text":"Analysis of findings.","correct":false,"explanation":"Analysis concerns interpreting collected evidence and drawing conclusions. Consent, participant protection and accurate recording must be addressed during the conduct of research."}]},{"id":"074ed53c-f15d-4c48-80bb-47729b1361e8","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Reflexivity means thinking critically about how the researcher's [ ] and [ ] may affect the process and findings.","back":"Reflexivity means thinking critically about how the researcher's identity and values may affect the process and findings.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Reflexivity means thinking critically about how the researcher's identity and values may affect the process and findings.","correct":true,"explanation":"Reflexivity requires researchers to examine how their social identity, experiences, assumptions and values may influence interactions with participants, interpretations and the conclusions produced."},{"text":"Reflexivity means thinking critically about how the researcher's sample and methods may affect the process and findings.","correct":false,"explanation":"Samples and methods affect research quality, but examining them alone is methodological evaluation rather than reflexivity. Reflexivity specifically considers the influence of the researcher's identity and values."},{"text":"Reflexivity means thinking critically about how the researcher's identity and hypothesis may affect the process and findings.","correct":false,"explanation":"A hypothesis may guide a study, but it is not the second personal influence highlighted by reflexivity. Researchers critically examine how their identity and values shape the research."},{"text":"Reflexivity means thinking critically about how the researcher's funding and values may affect the process and findings.","correct":false,"explanation":"Funding can influence research choices, but this definition focuses on the researcher as a person. Reflexivity examines how the researcher's identity and values affect the process and findings."}]},{"id":"790586a1-67dc-4e7c-b1f6-6ff8a1c0f33c","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What concept might feminist research on domestic abuse, harassment or unpaid labour reveal?","back":"Patriarchy - male power over women.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Patriarchy - male power over women.","correct":true,"explanation":"Feminists may use research on abuse, harassment and unpaid labour to expose patriarchy, a social system in which men collectively hold power over women."},{"text":"Matriarchy - female power over men.","correct":false,"explanation":"Matriarchy describes women holding social power over men, which is not the pattern these feminist studies seek to reveal. The relevant concept is patriarchy, meaning male power over women."},{"text":"Capitalism - owners' power over workers.","correct":false,"explanation":"Capitalism and owners' power over workers are central to Marxist analysis. Feminist research on abuse, harassment and unpaid labour is more directly concerned with patriarchy and male power."},{"text":"Meritocracy - talent determining social rewards.","correct":false,"explanation":"Meritocracy claims that rewards reflect talent and effort, which does not describe gendered domination. These feminist topics may reveal patriarchy, meaning male power over women."}]},{"id":"9abf6a47-b226-48c3-8ae2-a1d0b2e80eaf","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why might a Marxist study poverty or exploitation?","back":"They reveal capitalism's power and class inequality.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They reveal capitalism's power and class inequality.","correct":true,"explanation":"Marxists study poverty and exploitation because they see them as consequences of capitalism, which concentrates wealth and power in the ruling class and produces class inequality."},{"text":"They reveal patriarchy's power and gender inequality.","correct":false,"explanation":"Patriarchy and gender inequality are primarily the focus of feminist explanations. Marxist research examines how capitalism's power produces exploitation, poverty and inequality between social classes."},{"text":"They reveal bureaucracy's power and status inequality.","correct":false,"explanation":"Bureaucracy and status are more closely associated with Weberian analysis than with the central Marxist explanation. Marxists connect poverty and exploitation to capitalism's power and class inequality."},{"text":"They reveal meritocracy's power and individual inequality.","correct":false,"explanation":"Meritocracy suggests that unequal outcomes result from differences in effort or ability, contrary to Marxist structural analysis. Marxists investigate capitalism's power and the class inequality it creates."}]},{"id":"3e9d70f9-c09f-4738-b74e-44fff11cc1c6","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What data type do positivists usually prefer for finding patterns, correlations and trends?","back":"Quantitative data.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Quantitative data.","correct":true,"explanation":"Positivists use numerical data because it allows them to measure variables and identify large-scale patterns, statistical correlations and trends in society."},{"text":"Qualitative data.","correct":false,"explanation":"Qualitative data explores meanings and experiences, so interpretivists usually prefer it. Positivists generally favour quantitative data for measuring patterns, correlations and trends."},{"text":"Primary data.","correct":false,"explanation":"Primary data describes information collected directly by the researcher, not whether it is numerical. Positivists usually prefer quantitative data, which can be statistically analysed."},{"text":"Secondary data.","correct":false,"explanation":"Secondary data has already been collected and may be quantitative or qualitative. The data type positivists usually prefer for identifying social patterns is quantitative data."}]},{"id":"b1f052a7-362b-4f9d-9861-d00f711ad15e","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Positivists value [ ] - research that can be repeated with [ ].","back":"Positivists value reliability - research that can be repeated with similar results.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Positivists value reliability - research that can be repeated with similar results.","correct":true,"explanation":"Reliability means that a study can be replicated using the same procedures and produce similar results, allowing positivists to regard its findings as consistent."},{"text":"Positivists value validity - research that can be repeated with similar results.","correct":false,"explanation":"Repeating research and obtaining similar results demonstrates reliability, not validity. Validity concerns whether a study accurately captures the reality or meaning it claims to investigate."},{"text":"Positivists value reliability - research that can be repeated with different results.","correct":false,"explanation":"Different results across repetitions indicate low reliability. Reliable research uses consistent procedures and produces similar results when other researchers repeat the study."},{"text":"Positivists value validity - research that can be repeated with different results.","correct":false,"explanation":"Neither term fits the definition: repetition with different results shows inconsistency. Positivists value reliability, meaning research can be repeated and produce similar results."}]},{"id":"811fe865-c0fa-422d-9dba-26e3c5023739","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"If a sample reflects the wider target population, which quality is high?","back":"Representativeness.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Representativeness.","correct":true,"explanation":"Representativeness is high when the characteristics of a sample closely reflect those of the wider target population from which it was selected."},{"text":"Reliability.","correct":false,"explanation":"Reliability concerns whether repeating a study produces similar results, not whether its sample reflects the population. A reflective sample has high representativeness."},{"text":"Validity.","correct":false,"explanation":"Validity concerns whether research accurately captures the social reality being studied. A sample that reflects the wider target population has high representativeness."},{"text":"Objectivity.","correct":false,"explanation":"Objectivity concerns keeping personal values and bias from influencing research. The quality describing how closely a sample reflects its target population is representativeness."}]},{"id":"84f24115-1cb3-4ce0-8ba1-95448559496d","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What data type do interpretivists usually prefer for meanings, motives and interactions?","back":"Qualitative data.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Qualitative data.","correct":true,"explanation":"Interpretivists favour qualitative data because detailed accounts help researchers understand the meanings, motives and interpretations that individuals attach to social interactions."},{"text":"Quantitative data.","correct":false,"explanation":"Quantitative data measures social behaviour numerically and is usually favoured by positivists. Interpretivists prefer qualitative data for exploring meanings, motives and interactions in depth."},{"text":"Primary data.","correct":false,"explanation":"Primary data is information collected first-hand and can be either numerical or descriptive. Interpretivists specifically favour qualitative data because it reveals subjective meanings."},{"text":"Secondary data.","correct":false,"explanation":"Secondary data is information originally collected by someone else and may be quantitative or qualitative. Interpretivists usually prefer qualitative data for understanding social meanings."}]},{"id":"5a1e365d-50f5-435e-af44-292947f5c295","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Weber's term for empathetic understanding of social action is [ ].","back":"Weber's term for empathetic understanding of social action is Verstehen.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Verstehen","correct":true,"explanation":"Weber used Verstehen to describe empathetically understanding social action from the actor’s point of view, including the meanings and motives guiding their behaviour."},{"text":"Anomie","correct":false,"explanation":"Anomie refers to weakened norms or a condition of normlessness, especially in Durkheim’s work. Weber’s term for empathetic understanding of social action is Verstehen."},{"text":"Habitus","correct":false,"explanation":"Habitus is Bourdieu’s concept for socially acquired dispositions that influence behaviour and perception. Weber called empathetic understanding of social action Verstehen."},{"text":"Alienation","correct":false,"explanation":"Alienation is associated particularly with Marx and describes workers’ separation from their labour and human potential. Weber’s term for empathetic understanding is Verstehen."}]},{"id":"20e2b205-a4c4-48d2-8ff2-84700ee58d2b","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why might semi-structured interviews be better than closed questionnaires for studying teacher labelling and racism?","back":"They capture pupils' own words about subtle experiences.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They capture pupils' own words about subtle experiences.","correct":true,"explanation":"Semi-structured interviews let pupils explain labelling and racism in their own language, producing detailed, valid accounts of experiences that fixed questionnaire responses may miss."},{"text":"They restrict pupils to fixed responses about subtle experiences.","correct":false,"explanation":"Fixed responses are a feature of closed questionnaires and may prevent unexpected experiences from emerging. Semi-structured interviews are useful because they capture pupils' own words."},{"text":"They eliminate interviewer bias when discussing subtle experiences.","correct":false,"explanation":"Semi-structured interviews still involve interaction, so interviewer bias cannot be eliminated. Their advantage is that they capture pupils' own words about sensitive, subtle experiences."},{"text":"They produce highly reliable statistics about subtle experiences.","correct":false,"explanation":"Semi-structured interviews are less standardised and are not primarily designed to produce reliable statistics. They are valuable because they capture pupils' own words and meanings."}]},{"id":"ffb74a48-8310-4113-bbab-9798ff624f0b","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"How did Weber say values affect research topic choice?","back":"Values shape what researchers see as important.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Values shape what researchers see as important.","correct":true,"explanation":"Weber argued that researchers’ values influence which social issues they consider significant enough to investigate, even if they then try to conduct the research objectively."},{"text":"Values should never influence topic selection.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses value freedom during research with choosing a topic. Weber argued that values inevitably shape what researchers regard as important enough to study."},{"text":"Values determine whether evidence is reliable.","correct":false,"explanation":"Reliability depends on whether research can be repeated with similar results, not on researchers’ values. Weber said values shape which topics researchers consider important."},{"text":"Values make all sociological findings subjective.","correct":false,"explanation":"Weber did not claim that every finding must be subjective. He argued that values shape topic choice, while researchers should still aim for objectivity when investigating it."}]},{"id":"36834257-e28e-46ba-95dd-c749a7e15373","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"A [ ] is the list used to select a sample; without one, [ ] becomes difficult.","back":"A sampling frame is the list used to select a sample; without one, random sampling becomes difficult.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A sampling frame is the list used to select a sample; without one, random sampling becomes difficult.","correct":true,"explanation":"A sampling frame lists the members of the target population. Random sampling usually requires this list so that each member can have an equal chance of selection."},{"text":"A target population is the list used to select a sample; without one, random sampling becomes difficult.","correct":false,"explanation":"The target population is the whole group the researcher wants to study, not its list. That list is the sampling frame, which enables random selection."},{"text":"A sampling frame is the list used to select a sample; without one, quota sampling becomes difficult.","correct":false,"explanation":"Quota sampling selects people with specified characteristics and does not necessarily require a complete list. A sampling frame is particularly needed for random sampling."},{"text":"A target population is the list used to select a sample; without one, quota sampling becomes difficult.","correct":false,"explanation":"The target population is the group being studied, while its list is the sampling frame. Without a sampling frame, random sampling rather than quota sampling becomes difficult."}]},{"id":"f99d9ef1-4bbc-4470-89c3-6deb2ddcee63","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How can gatekeepers affect a study's sample?","back":"They control access, influencing who is included.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They control access, influencing who is included.","correct":true,"explanation":"Gatekeepers can permit or deny access to particular people or settings, so their decisions shape the sample and may affect how representative it is."},{"text":"They select randomly, ensuring everyone is included.","correct":false,"explanation":"Gatekeepers do not usually conduct random sampling or ensure universal inclusion. They control access, influencing which people the researcher can include in the study."},{"text":"They analyse findings, influencing how data is interpreted.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses gatekeepers with researchers, who analyse and interpret data. Gatekeepers control access to settings or participants, thereby influencing who enters the sample."},{"text":"They fund research, determining which methods are used.","correct":false,"explanation":"Funding bodies may influence methods through financial constraints, but gatekeepers primarily control access to people or settings, affecting who is included in the sample."}]},{"id":"26be79c5-f9eb-4cd1-8ea6-3ef6cdda4e3a","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why can a low response rate reduce representativeness?","back":"Respondents may differ from those who do not reply.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Respondents may differ from those who do not reply.","correct":true,"explanation":"People who respond may have different characteristics or views from non-respondents. The resulting sample may therefore fail to represent the target population accurately."},{"text":"Respondents may agree with those who do not reply.","correct":false,"explanation":"Agreement between respondents and non-respondents would not explain reduced representativeness. The problem is that those who reply may differ systematically from those who do not."},{"text":"Researchers may differ from those who do not reply.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses researchers with members of the sample. A low response rate matters because respondents may differ from non-respondents, creating non-response bias."},{"text":"Respondents may communicate with those who do not reply.","correct":false,"explanation":"Communication between participants is not the central issue. Representativeness falls when those who respond have different characteristics or opinions from those who do not."}]},{"id":"ffd133eb-7c06-463b-bf94-2ec3197a69f9","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Informed consent means participants [ ] and [ ].","back":"Informed consent means participants understand the research and agree to take part.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Informed consent means participants understand the research and agree to take part.","correct":true,"explanation":"Consent is informed only when participants understand relevant information about the research and voluntarily agree to participate, rather than being deceived, pressured or enrolled unknowingly."},{"text":"Informed consent means participants understand the research and are paid to take part.","correct":false,"explanation":"Payment may encourage participation, but it does not constitute consent. Participants must understand the research and voluntarily agree to take part in it."},{"text":"Informed consent means participants are unaware of the research and agree to take part.","correct":false,"explanation":"Agreement cannot be fully informed when participants do not understand the research. Informed consent requires both understanding the study and voluntarily agreeing to participate."},{"text":"Informed consent means participants know the researcher’s identity and are guaranteed anonymity.","correct":false,"explanation":"Knowing the researcher’s identity and receiving anonymity are not the defining conditions. Participants must understand the research and voluntarily agree to take part."}]},{"id":"d5e53beb-7f53-4530-a5b9-6960054f6498","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What is the main ethical problem with covert research?","back":"Participants cannot give informed consent.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Participants cannot give informed consent.","correct":true,"explanation":"Because participants do not know they are being studied, they cannot understand the research and voluntarily agree to participate, making informed consent impossible."},{"text":"Participants cannot receive financial payment.","correct":false,"explanation":"Payment is not required for ethical research and is not the central problem with covert methods. The main issue is that participants cannot give informed consent."},{"text":"Participants cannot remain completely anonymous.","correct":false,"explanation":"Anonymity may still be protected by removing identifying details from the findings. The main ethical problem is that covert participants cannot provide informed consent."},{"text":"Researchers cannot collect quantitative evidence.","correct":false,"explanation":"Covert research can produce quantitative evidence, such as counts of observed behaviour. Its main ethical problem is the absence of participants’ informed consent."}]},{"id":"1b1108be-ba80-4875-a98a-2eeaa4201635","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why can covert research improve validity?","back":"People may behave more naturally.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"People may behave more naturally.","correct":true,"explanation":"When people do not know they are being studied, they are less likely to alter their behaviour because of the researcher’s presence, increasing ecological validity."},{"text":"People may give more detailed answers.","correct":false,"explanation":"Covert research does not necessarily involve participants giving answers, so it does not automatically increase detail. Validity improves because people may behave more naturally."},{"text":"Researchers may obtain more representative samples.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses validity with representativeness. Covert research may improve validity by reducing the observer effect, but it does not necessarily make the sample more representative."},{"text":"Researchers may collect more quantitative evidence.","correct":false,"explanation":"The quantity or numerical form of evidence does not itself improve validity. Covert methods can increase validity because unaware participants may behave more naturally."}]},{"id":"702382bd-4660-4a09-a374-2781c64b23db","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What does triangulation do in sociological research?","back":"Uses more than one method or source to check findings.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Uses more than one method or source to check findings.","correct":true,"explanation":"Triangulation compares evidence produced through multiple methods or sources. Agreement between them can strengthen confidence in the accuracy and validity of the findings."},{"text":"Uses only one method or source to check findings.","correct":false,"explanation":"Using a single method or source cannot provide triangulation because there is nothing independent to compare. Triangulation requires more than one method or source."},{"text":"Uses the same participants twice to check findings.","correct":false,"explanation":"Repeating research with the same participants may test consistency, but it is not triangulation. Triangulation checks findings using more than one method or source."},{"text":"Uses a larger random sample to check findings.","correct":false,"explanation":"A larger random sample may improve representativeness, but it does not constitute triangulation. Triangulation uses multiple methods or sources to compare and check findings."}]},{"id":"3e62badc-0921-4f43-80af-9cbf130a7793","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Official statistics may be reliable and representative but lack [ ]; interviews may be valid and detailed but less [ ].","back":"Official statistics may be reliable and representative but lack validity; interviews may be valid and detailed but less representative.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Official statistics may be reliable and representative but lack validity; interviews may be valid and detailed but less representative.","correct":true,"explanation":"Official statistics can offer consistent, large-scale data while failing to capture meanings accurately. Interviews provide depth and validity, but their smaller samples are often less representative."},{"text":"Official statistics may be reliable and representative but lack reliability; interviews may be valid and detailed but less representative.","correct":false,"explanation":"This contradicts the statement that official statistics are reliable. Their usual limitation is validity, while interviews are often less representative because they use smaller samples."},{"text":"Official statistics may be reliable and representative but lack validity; interviews may be valid and detailed but less valid.","correct":false,"explanation":"This contradicts the description of interviews as valid and detailed. Interviews may capture meanings accurately, but their typically small samples make them less representative."},{"text":"Official statistics may be reliable and representative but lack representativeness; interviews may be valid and detailed but less detailed.","correct":false,"explanation":"Both substitutions contradict qualities already stated in the sentence. Official statistics may lack validity, whereas interviews can be detailed and valid but less representative."}]}]}],"examCountdown":{"examDate":"2027-05-14","paperLabel":"Paper 1"},"heading":"Considerations influencing research choices","title":"Considerations influencing research choices Flashcards","topbar":{"backHref":"/a-level/sociology/aqa/flashcards"},"topicSidebar":"$L38"}]}],"topicId":"e6aa5592-63e4-503b-9b5d-a4215cca2f24","walled":"$L39"}],"$L3a","$L3b"]