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Unconscious mental forces
Early childhood experiences
Personality conflict

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Unconscious mental forces
Early childhood experiences
Personality conflict

","correct":true,"explanation":"The psychodynamic perspective explains behaviour through unconscious motives, formative childhood experiences and conflicts among parts of the personality, particularly the id, ego and superego."},{"text":"

Conscious mental choices
Current social situations
Rational decision-making

","correct":false,"explanation":"This reflects a conscious, rational account of behaviour rather than Freud’s approach. Psychodynamic theory emphasises unconscious forces, early childhood experiences and conflict within the personality."},{"text":"

Environmental reinforcement
Learned associations
Observed behaviour

","correct":false,"explanation":"These are central ideas from behaviourist and social learning explanations. The psychodynamic perspective instead focuses on unconscious forces, childhood experiences and internal personality conflict."},{"text":"

Inherited biological traits
Brain chemistry
Genetic predispositions

","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses the psychodynamic perspective with the biological approach. Freud mainly explained behaviour through unconscious mental forces, early experiences and conflicts within personality."}]},{"id":"80c95847-b825-4662-bd82-3c38c6a6ccdf","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Freud called the mind [ ] because it contains [ ].","back":"Freud called the mind dynamic because it contains competing forces.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Freud called the mind dynamic because it contains competing forces.","correct":true,"explanation":"Freud viewed the mind as dynamic because unconscious wishes, instincts and internalised rules exert competing pressures, creating psychological conflict that influences behaviour."},{"text":"Freud called the mind static because it contains competing forces.","correct":false,"explanation":"Competing psychological forces make the mind active and changeable, not static. Freud therefore called the mind dynamic because its internal forces continually interact and conflict."},{"text":"Freud called the mind dynamic because it contains harmonious forces.","correct":false,"explanation":"The term dynamic refers specifically to conflict and interaction, not harmony. Freud argued that the mind contains competing forces, such as instinctual desires and moral demands."},{"text":"Freud called the mind conscious because it contains observable thoughts.","correct":false,"explanation":"Freud did not limit mental activity to conscious, observable thoughts. He called the mind dynamic because it contains competing forces, many of which operate unconsciously."}]},{"id":"7a7e33c1-0669-4907-bf6b-8959b755067c","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which level of the mind is outside awareness but still influences behaviour?","back":"Unconscious mind.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Unconscious mind.","correct":true,"explanation":"The unconscious contains wishes, memories and conflicts that are inaccessible to ordinary awareness but continue to influence emotions, decisions and behaviour."},{"text":"Conscious mind.","correct":false,"explanation":"The conscious mind contains thoughts and perceptions within current awareness. The unconscious mind is the level outside awareness that nevertheless continues to influence behaviour."},{"text":"Sensory register.","correct":false,"explanation":"The sensory register is a brief memory store in cognitive psychology, not a Freudian level of mind. Freud identified the unconscious as influencing behaviour outside awareness."},{"text":"Working memory.","correct":false,"explanation":"Working memory actively processes information currently being used, so it is associated with awareness. The unconscious mind lies outside awareness while still affecting behaviour."}]},{"id":"b30f120d-2504-4108-aa87-ae52ad3a13a8","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"The [ ] contains information not currently thought about but available to awareness.","back":"The preconscious contains information not currently thought about but available to awareness.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"preconscious","correct":true,"explanation":"The preconscious stores information outside present awareness that can be retrieved relatively easily, such as a familiar name or a memory not currently being considered."},{"text":"unconscious","correct":false,"explanation":"Unconscious material is generally inaccessible without techniques such as dream analysis or free association. Information readily available to awareness is held in the preconscious."},{"text":"conscious","correct":false,"explanation":"The conscious contains information currently within awareness, rather than information merely available for retrieval. Material not presently considered but accessible is preconscious."},{"text":"superego","correct":false,"explanation":"The superego is a component of personality containing internalised moral standards, not a level holding retrievable information. That accessible material belongs to the preconscious."}]},{"id":"7944d6ee-252e-47e5-a41d-40bbea2c169d","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What does psychic determinism imply about dreams, slips and symptoms?","back":"They have unconscious causes, not random origins.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They have unconscious causes, not random origins.","correct":true,"explanation":"Psychic determinism proposes that every mental event has a cause. Dreams, slips and symptoms therefore express underlying unconscious wishes or conflicts rather than occurring randomly."},{"text":"They have random causes, not meaningful origins.","correct":false,"explanation":"Treating these events as random directly contradicts psychic determinism. Freud argued that dreams, slips and symptoms have meaningful unconscious causes rooted in hidden wishes or conflicts."},{"text":"They have conscious causes, not unconscious origins.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses Freud’s explanation by locating the causes in conscious intention. Psychic determinism holds that apparently accidental dreams, slips and symptoms arise from unconscious processes."},{"text":"They have biological causes, not psychological origins.","correct":false,"explanation":"This substitutes a biological explanation for Freud’s psychological account. Psychic determinism implies that dreams, slips and symptoms arise from unconscious wishes and conflicts, not random events."}]},{"id":"03bfe8af-60ee-4bf2-81b6-8522243c6119","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which part of personality follows the pleasure principle?","back":"Id.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Id.","correct":true,"explanation":"The id follows the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification of instinctive drives without considering reality, morality or the possible consequences of its actions."},{"text":"Ego.","correct":false,"explanation":"The ego follows the reality principle and delays gratification until desires can be satisfied appropriately. The id is the personality component governed by the pleasure principle."},{"text":"Superego.","correct":false,"explanation":"The superego follows internalised moral standards and judges behaviour as right or wrong. The id, rather than the superego, seeks immediate pleasure and gratification."},{"text":"Conscience.","correct":false,"explanation":"The conscience is the punitive aspect of the superego and can create guilt after wrongdoing. The id is the component that operates according to the pleasure principle."}]},{"id":"aac1471e-d00b-48f2-a7b5-fd08ce6786ca","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"The [ ] follows the [ ] to satisfy desires realistically.","back":"The ego follows the reality principle to satisfy desires realistically.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The ego follows the reality principle to satisfy desires realistically.","correct":true,"explanation":"The ego mediates between instinctive demands and external constraints. By following the reality principle, it delays gratification until desires can be satisfied safely and appropriately."},{"text":"The id follows the pleasure principle to satisfy desires realistically.","correct":false,"explanation":"Although the id follows the pleasure principle, it demands immediate gratification rather than realistic satisfaction. The ego follows the reality principle to meet desires realistically."},{"text":"The ego follows the morality principle to satisfy desires realistically.","correct":false,"explanation":"The ego balances demands according to the reality principle, not a morality principle. Moral standards belong to the superego, whereas the ego seeks realistic satisfaction."},{"text":"The superego follows the reality principle to satisfy desires realistically.","correct":false,"explanation":"The superego represents internalised morality and may oppose unacceptable desires. The ego follows the reality principle and finds realistic ways to satisfy those desires."}]},{"id":"80d7ac0c-3194-4647-8c27-03425a3eb92e","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What emotion can the superego produce when internal standards are broken?","back":"Guilt.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Guilt.","correct":true,"explanation":"The superego judges behaviour against internalised moral standards. When those standards are violated, its conscience can punish the ego by producing feelings of guilt."},{"text":"Pleasure.","correct":false,"explanation":"Pleasure is associated with the id obtaining gratification, not with punishment from the superego. Breaking internalised moral standards typically causes the superego to produce guilt."},{"text":"Relief.","correct":false,"explanation":"Relief might follow the removal of tension, but it is not the superego’s characteristic response to wrongdoing. Violating internal standards produces guilt through the conscience."},{"text":"Frustration.","correct":false,"explanation":"Frustration is more closely linked to blocked goals or denied gratification. When internal moral standards are broken, the superego characteristically responds by producing guilt."}]},{"id":"5afd6ebd-8767-4b0d-a666-bcdece5d5a52","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What triggers the ego to use defence mechanisms?","back":"Anxiety from conflict between id, ego and superego.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Anxiety from conflict between id, ego and superego.","correct":true,"explanation":"Conflict among the id’s demands, the superego’s moral standards and the ego’s grasp of reality produces anxiety, prompting the ego to use defence mechanisms."},{"text":"Pleasure from agreement between id, ego and superego.","correct":false,"explanation":"Pleasure is associated with satisfying instinctive drives, not with activating defences. Defence mechanisms are triggered by anxiety arising from conflict between the id, ego and superego."},{"text":"Fixation from conflict during psychosexual development.","correct":false,"explanation":"Fixation results from unresolved conflict during a psychosexual stage rather than directly triggering defence mechanisms. The ego deploys them in response to anxiety caused by psychic conflict."},{"text":"Libido from satisfaction of the id’s instinctive drives.","correct":false,"explanation":"Libido is the energy behind pleasure-seeking drives, not the trigger for ego defences. Anxiety from conflict among the id, ego and superego activates defence mechanisms."}]},{"id":"ba2311dc-fff9-4c0e-8d11-bde2869e884c","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which defence mechanism pushes threatening thoughts into the unconscious?","back":"Repression.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Repression.","correct":true,"explanation":"Repression protects the conscious mind by unconsciously pushing threatening thoughts, memories or impulses out of awareness, although they may continue to influence behaviour."},{"text":"Denial.","correct":false,"explanation":"Denial involves refusing to accept an upsetting external reality, rather than pushing threatening thoughts into the unconscious. The mechanism described is repression."},{"text":"Displacement.","correct":false,"explanation":"Displacement redirects an impulse or emotion from a threatening target towards a safer substitute. Repression instead forces threatening mental content into the unconscious."},{"text":"Projection.","correct":false,"explanation":"Projection attributes one’s own unacceptable feelings or impulses to another person. Repression is the mechanism that removes threatening thoughts from conscious awareness."}]},{"id":"33e78b10-d847-4601-a3f7-c8c53a8b43be","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which defence mechanism refuses to accept upsetting reality?","back":"Denial.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Denial.","correct":true,"explanation":"Denial protects the ego by blocking recognition of an upsetting fact or event, allowing the person to behave as though that reality does not exist."},{"text":"Repression.","correct":false,"explanation":"Repression pushes threatening thoughts or memories into the unconscious rather than rejecting an external reality. Refusing to acknowledge upsetting reality is denial."},{"text":"Projection.","correct":false,"explanation":"Projection deals with unacceptable feelings by attributing them to somebody else. Denial is the defence mechanism that refuses to accept an upsetting reality."},{"text":"Displacement.","correct":false,"explanation":"Displacement transfers feelings from a threatening target to a safer one rather than rejecting reality. Refusal to accept an upsetting fact is denial."}]},{"id":"8e8378e0-b557-4c1a-8a99-d73e83eca1da","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which defence mechanism redirects feelings from a threatening target to a safer one?","back":"Displacement.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Displacement.","correct":true,"explanation":"Displacement transfers an emotion or impulse away from its threatening original target and directs it towards a safer person or object."},{"text":"Projection.","correct":false,"explanation":"Projection attributes one’s own unacceptable feelings to someone else; it does not redirect them towards a safer target. Redirecting feelings in this way is displacement."},{"text":"Repression.","correct":false,"explanation":"Repression removes threatening thoughts or impulses from conscious awareness rather than transferring feelings between targets. The redirection described is displacement."},{"text":"Denial.","correct":false,"explanation":"Denial refuses to recognise an upsetting reality rather than redirecting an emotion to a less threatening target. That transfer is called displacement."}]},{"id":"321997f3-58b7-4f6f-97ce-d999f770ab5c","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which defence mechanism attributes your unacceptable feelings to someone else?","back":"Projection.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Projection.","correct":true,"explanation":"Projection protects the ego by treating one’s own unacceptable feelings or impulses as if they belong to another person instead."},{"text":"Displacement.","correct":false,"explanation":"Displacement redirects feelings towards a safer target but does not attribute them to that target. Assigning one’s own unacceptable feelings to somebody else is projection."},{"text":"Denial.","correct":false,"explanation":"Denial involves refusing to accept an upsetting reality, not assigning personal feelings to another person. The attribution described is projection."},{"text":"Repression.","correct":false,"explanation":"Repression pushes threatening mental content into the unconscious rather than locating it in another person. Attributing one’s own unacceptable feelings to others is projection."}]},{"id":"ff9ba853-d07c-4825-abb8-f3401a6a6f15","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"In psychosexual development, [ ] is pleasure-seeking energy focused on body areas.","back":"In psychosexual development, libido is pleasure-seeking energy focused on body areas.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"libido","correct":true,"explanation":"Freud used libido to describe psychosexual energy that seeks pleasure and becomes focused on different erogenous body areas during successive stages of development."},{"text":"fixation","correct":false,"explanation":"Fixation is arrested development caused by unresolved conflict at a psychosexual stage, not the pleasure-seeking energy itself. Freud called that energy libido."},{"text":"regression","correct":false,"explanation":"Regression is a return to patterns of behaviour associated with an earlier developmental stage. The pleasure-seeking energy focused on body areas is libido."},{"text":"repression","correct":false,"explanation":"Repression is a defence mechanism that pushes threatening material into the unconscious. Freud’s term for the pleasure-seeking energy driving psychosexual development is libido."}]},{"id":"2b06e8e5-9170-4b19-b0d8-1d6eb52996a6","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What can too much or too little satisfaction at a psychosexual stage cause?","back":"A fixation, with development stuck at that stage.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A fixation, with development stuck at that stage.","correct":true,"explanation":"Excessive gratification or frustration can leave libido attached to the unresolved stage, producing a fixation that influences later personality and behaviour."},{"text":"A regression, with development returning to an earlier stage.","correct":false,"explanation":"Regression means returning to behaviour characteristic of an earlier stage, rather than becoming developmentally stuck through over- or under-satisfaction. That unresolved attachment is a fixation."},{"text":"A projection, with feelings attributed to another person.","correct":false,"explanation":"Projection is a defence mechanism that assigns unacceptable feelings to another person, not a developmental consequence of uneven satisfaction. Excessive or insufficient satisfaction causes fixation."},{"text":"A displacement, with feelings redirected to a safer target.","correct":false,"explanation":"Displacement redirects emotion towards a safer target and is not arrested psychosexual development. Too much or too little satisfaction at a stage can produce fixation."}]},{"id":"267e7743-91d2-4f7d-a1cd-101f9763ee3e","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"The [ ] stage focuses on the mouth; the [ ] stage focuses on control and toilet training.","back":"The oral stage focuses on the mouth; the anal stage focuses on control and toilet training.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The oral stage focuses on the mouth; the anal stage focuses on control and toilet training.","correct":true,"explanation":"During the oral stage, pleasure centres on activities involving the mouth. During the anal stage, pleasure and conflict concern bowel control and toilet training."},{"text":"The phallic stage focuses on the mouth; the anal stage focuses on control and toilet training.","correct":false,"explanation":"The phallic stage concerns the genitals and the Oedipus or Electra conflict, not the mouth. The mouth is central during the oral stage, while toilet training defines the anal stage."},{"text":"The oral stage focuses on the mouth; the phallic stage focuses on control and toilet training.","correct":false,"explanation":"The mouth is correctly associated with the oral stage, but the phallic stage concerns genital awareness. Control and toilet training belong to the anal stage."},{"text":"The latent stage focuses on the mouth; the genital stage focuses on control and toilet training.","correct":false,"explanation":"The latency stage is marked by relatively dormant sexual impulses, while the genital stage concerns mature sexuality. Mouth and toilet-training focuses belong to the oral and anal stages respectively."}]},{"id":"81fcd9b0-b140-4557-855f-03a4914c2e73","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"The [ ] stage involves awareness of sex differences and family relationships.","back":"The phallic stage involves awareness of sex differences and family relationships.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"phallic","correct":true,"explanation":"The phallic stage, usually from around ages three to six, involves becoming aware of sex differences and developing important family relationships."},{"text":"oral","correct":false,"explanation":"The oral stage centres on pleasure and conflict involving the mouth, such as feeding. The correct stage is phallic, which involves sex differences and family relationships."},{"text":"anal","correct":false,"explanation":"The anal stage focuses on pleasure and conflict associated with controlling bodily functions. The correct stage is phallic, involving awareness of sex differences and family relationships."},{"text":"latency","correct":false,"explanation":"The latency stage is characterised by relatively reduced sexual interest while social and intellectual development occur. The correct stage is phallic, involving sex differences and family relationships."}]},{"id":"3f5a755a-c0f1-4031-a76e-1eb40224fecc","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"In Little Hans, which unconscious conflict involves desire for mother and rivalry with father?","back":"Oedipus complex.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Oedipus complex.","correct":true,"explanation":"The Oedipus complex describes a boy’s unconscious desire for his mother combined with rivalry and hostility towards his father."},{"text":"Electra complex.","correct":false,"explanation":"The Electra complex refers to a girl’s unconscious conflict involving desire for her father and rivalry with her mother. Little Hans’s conflict is the Oedipus complex."},{"text":"castration anxiety.","correct":false,"explanation":"Castration anxiety is the fear of losing the penis, thought to result from the Oedipus conflict. The conflict itself involving desire for mother and rivalry with father is the Oedipus complex."},{"text":"identification.","correct":false,"explanation":"Identification is the process of adopting characteristics of the same-sex parent, helping resolve the Oedipus complex. It is not the unconscious conflict involving desire for mother and rivalry with father."}]},{"id":"362a72f4-2e0a-46c4-9ff3-af97fbb22ae7","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How did Freud interpret Little Hans's fear of horses?","back":"As displacement of fear of his father onto horses.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"As displacement of fear of his father onto horses.","correct":true,"explanation":"Freud viewed the horse as a substitute target for Hans’s unacceptable fear of his father, so the anxiety was displaced onto horses."},{"text":"As projection of his own aggression onto horses.","correct":false,"explanation":"Projection involves attributing one’s own unacceptable feelings to someone else. Freud interpreted Hans’s fear as displacement of fear of his father onto horses."},{"text":"As identification with his father’s threatening qualities.","correct":false,"explanation":"Identification involves adopting another person’s characteristics rather than redirecting anxiety. Freud interpreted the phobia as displacement of fear of Hans’s father onto horses."},{"text":"As regression to an earlier stage of psychosexual development.","correct":false,"explanation":"Regression means returning to an earlier developmental pattern under stress. Freud’s explanation was displacement, with fear of Hans’s father redirected onto horses."}]},{"id":"6e3aefcb-5a47-4479-8af2-58074cd02439","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why does Little Hans have low population validity?","back":"It was a case study of one child, so may not generalise.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It was a case study of one child, so may not generalise.","correct":true,"explanation":"Studying only Little Hans gives detailed information about one unusual case, but the findings may not apply to other children or wider populations."},{"text":"It used a large sample of children, so individual differences were ignored.","correct":false,"explanation":"A large sample would usually improve population validity. Little Hans has low population validity because he was a case study of one child, limiting generalisation."},{"text":"It was a laboratory experiment with artificial tasks, so behaviour was unrealistic.","correct":false,"explanation":"Artificial laboratory tasks mainly threaten ecological validity. Little Hans has low population validity because the study focused on one child and may not generalise."},{"text":"It studied a representative sample of families, so findings were culturally narrow.","correct":false,"explanation":"A representative sample would support population validity rather than weaken it. The limitation was that Little Hans was a case study of one child, so findings may not generalise."}]},{"id":"9d3d3add-4452-4011-b794-3d641b6e6932","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What behaviourist alternative could explain Hans's horse phobia?","back":"Hans may have learned the fear through experience or observation.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Hans may have learned the fear through experience or observation.","correct":true,"explanation":"A behaviourist explanation suggests that Hans’s horse fear could have been acquired through conditioning, direct experience, or observing fearful responses from others."},{"text":"Hans may have inherited the fear through his genes alone.","correct":false,"explanation":"A purely inherited explanation is biological rather than behaviourist. Behaviourists would argue that Hans may have learned the fear through experience or observation."},{"text":"Hans may have repressed the fear through unconscious conflict.","correct":false,"explanation":"Repression and unconscious conflict are psychodynamic concepts. The behaviourist alternative is that Hans learned the fear through experience or observation."},{"text":"Hans may have resolved the fear through identification with his father.","correct":false,"explanation":"Identification is a psychodynamic process and does not explain how a phobia is learned. The behaviourist account proposes learning through experience or observation."}]},{"id":"7bac43a3-95f8-464a-8b2c-65169bbfea60","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What is psychoanalysis designed to bring into awareness?","back":"Unconscious conflicts.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Unconscious conflicts.","correct":true,"explanation":"Psychoanalysis aims to make unconscious conflicts conscious, allowing the person to understand and work through hidden sources of psychological distress."},{"text":"Observable behaviours.","correct":false,"explanation":"Observable behaviours are the main focus of behaviourism, not psychoanalysis. Psychoanalysis is designed to bring unconscious conflicts into awareness."},{"text":"Biological abnormalities.","correct":false,"explanation":"Biological abnormalities are investigated by biological approaches rather than being the central target of psychoanalysis. Psychoanalysis focuses on unconscious conflicts."},{"text":"Conscious coping strategies.","correct":false,"explanation":"Conscious coping strategies may be considered in other therapies, but psychoanalysis specifically seeks to uncover unconscious conflicts and bring them into awareness."}]},{"id":"974b92e9-86b2-44bb-9ad1-44179bea5bc1","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"In [ ], dreams are interpreted as symbolic expressions of [ ].","back":"In dream analysis, dreams are interpreted as symbolic expressions of unconscious wishes.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"In dream analysis, dreams are interpreted as symbolic expressions of unconscious wishes.","correct":true,"explanation":"Freud’s dream analysis treats the manifest dream as symbolic material that can reveal latent, unconscious wishes and conflicts."},{"text":"In free association, dreams are interpreted as symbolic expressions of unconscious wishes.","correct":false,"explanation":"Free association explores thoughts by encouraging unrestricted verbal responses, whereas dream analysis interprets dreams as symbolic expressions of unconscious wishes."},{"text":"In dream analysis, dreams are interpreted as symbolic expressions of conscious plans.","correct":false,"explanation":"Freud regarded dreams as expressions of hidden unconscious material, not simply conscious plans. The correct terms are dream analysis and unconscious wishes."},{"text":"In transference, dreams are interpreted as symbolic expressions of unresolved memories.","correct":false,"explanation":"Transference concerns redirecting feelings towards the therapist, while dream analysis interprets dreams as symbolic expressions of unconscious wishes."}]},{"id":"a7e4ba58-982d-41ae-8b0c-a0fcd3fa288c","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why can the psychodynamic perspective be seen as holistic?","back":"It considers emotions, childhood, relationships and hidden motives.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It considers emotions, childhood, relationships and hidden motives.","correct":true,"explanation":"The psychodynamic perspective is holistic because it considers interconnected emotional experiences, childhood events, relationships and hidden motives rather than isolating one behaviour."},{"text":"It considers observable behaviour, reinforcement, punishment and learning.","correct":false,"explanation":"These are central concerns of the behaviourist perspective. The psychodynamic approach is holistic because it considers emotions, childhood, relationships and hidden motives."},{"text":"It considers genes, hormones, brain structures and neurotransmitters.","correct":false,"explanation":"These factors are emphasised by the biological perspective. Psychodynamic holism instead involves emotions, childhood, relationships and hidden motives."},{"text":"It considers thoughts, memory, attention and information processing.","correct":false,"explanation":"These are key topics in the cognitive perspective. The psychodynamic perspective is holistic because it considers emotions, childhood, relationships and hidden motives."}]},{"id":"7f94477b-3025-4802-b304-1400975b8b9b","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why are some psychodynamic concepts hard to falsify?","back":"Contradicting evidence can be reinterpreted as a defence mechanism.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Contradicting evidence can be reinterpreted as a defence mechanism.","correct":true,"explanation":"Evidence that appears to contradict a psychodynamic explanation may be labelled denial, repression or another defence mechanism. This protects the explanation from refutation, making it difficult to falsify scientifically."},{"text":"Psychodynamic predictions are expressed as precise numerical hypotheses.","correct":false,"explanation":"Precise numerical hypotheses would make psychodynamic claims easier, not harder, to test and falsify. The difficulty arises because contradictory evidence can be reinterpreted as evidence of a defence mechanism."},{"text":"Unconscious conflicts can be observed using objective laboratory measures.","correct":false,"explanation":"Objective observation would make unconscious conflicts more open to scientific testing. Psychodynamic concepts are difficult to falsify because apparent contradictions can instead be explained as defence mechanisms."},{"text":"Contradicting evidence is accepted as a refutation of the theory.","correct":false,"explanation":"Accepting contradictory evidence as refutation would make the theory falsifiable. Psychodynamic explanations may instead reinterpret such evidence as a defence mechanism, allowing the original claim to remain intact."}]},{"id":"6d6e5605-2f6e-4b05-a960-e1b83d069134","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Psychodynamic explanations focus on [ ]; behaviourist explanations focus on [ ].","back":"Psychodynamic explanations focus on internal unconscious conflict; behaviourist explanations focus on observable learning from the environment.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Psychodynamic explanations focus on internal unconscious conflict; behaviourist explanations focus on observable learning from the environment.","correct":true,"explanation":"The psychodynamic approach explains behaviour through unconscious internal forces and conflicts, whereas behaviourism explains it through observable learning processes such as conditioning and environmental reinforcement."},{"text":"Psychodynamic explanations focus on observable learning from the environment; behaviourist explanations focus on internal unconscious conflict.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the two approaches. Psychodynamic theory emphasises internal unconscious conflict, while behaviourism rejects unobservable mental explanations and focuses on learning from the environment."},{"text":"Psychodynamic explanations focus on conscious rational decision-making; behaviourist explanations focus on observable learning from the environment.","correct":false,"explanation":"Conscious rational decision-making belongs more closely to cognitive explanations than psychodynamic theory. Psychodynamic explanations specifically emphasise internal unconscious conflict, while behaviourism focuses on observable environmental learning."},{"text":"Psychodynamic explanations focus on internal unconscious conflict; behaviourist explanations focus on inherited biological processes.","correct":false,"explanation":"Inherited biological processes are emphasised by the biological approach, not behaviourism. Behaviourist explanations focus on observable learning from the environment, while psychodynamic explanations emphasise internal unconscious conflict."}]}]}],"examCountdown":{"examDate":"2027-05-18","paperLabel":"Paper 1"},"heading":"Psychodynamic","title":"Psychodynamic Flashcards","topbar":{"backHref":"/a-level/psychology/ocr/flashcards"},"topicSidebar":"$L37"}]}],"topicId":"6eeaaf80-c4da-5cea-8573-1b0cc28dccca","walled":"$L38"}],"$L39","$L3a"]