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taking requires uncertainty about what will happen and includes the possibility of an undesirable result, even when the outcome might instead be neutral or positive."},{"text":"Risk taking involves an certain outcome with a possible negative consequence.","correct":false,"explanation":"A certain outcome is not risk because risk depends on uncertainty. The correct definition involves an uncertain outcome with a possible negative consequence."},{"text":"Risk taking involves an uncertain outcome with a guaranteed negative consequence.","correct":false,"explanation":"Risk does not require harm to be guaranteed; it only needs to be possible. The correct definition involves an uncertain outcome with a possible negative consequence."},{"text":"Risk taking involves a certain outcome with a guaranteed positive consequence.","correct":false,"explanation":"This describes neither uncertainty nor potential harm, so it is not risk taking. The correct definition involves an uncertain outcome with a possible negative consequence."}]},{"id":"a2957222-f51e-4881-9773-f3ef8673dadd","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"The prefrontal cortex supports [ ] and continues maturing into [ ].","back":"The prefrontal cortex supports impulse control and continues maturing into early adulthood.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The prefrontal cortex supports impulse control and continues maturing into early adulthood.","correct":true,"explanation":"The prefrontal cortex helps regulate impulses and decision-making, but its development continues beyond adolescence and into early adulthood."},{"text":"The prefrontal cortex supports impulse control and continues maturing into late childhood.","correct":false,"explanation":"Prefrontal development does not finish in late childhood; it continues through adolescence. The correct completion is early adulthood, when impulse regulation becomes more mature."},{"text":"The prefrontal cortex supports emotional reactivity and continues maturing into early adulthood.","correct":false,"explanation":"Emotional reactivity is more strongly associated with limbic systems, whereas the prefrontal cortex supports impulse control. Its maturation continues into early adulthood."},{"text":"The prefrontal cortex supports impulse control and continues maturing into middle adulthood.","correct":false,"explanation":"Although brain development can continue across adulthood, the key A-level point is that prefrontal maturation extends into early adulthood, not specifically middle adulthood."}]},{"id":"24162058-c896-4165-8af5-8e027b6eaafa","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which limbic structure is strongly involved in reward anticipation and motivation?","back":"The ventral striatum.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The ventral striatum.","correct":true,"explanation":"The ventral striatum is part of the reward system and is strongly involved in anticipating rewards, processing motivation, and encouraging approach behaviour."},{"text":"The amygdala.","correct":false,"explanation":"The amygdala is primarily associated with threat detection and emotional salience. Reward anticipation and motivation are more strongly linked to the ventral striatum."},{"text":"The prefrontal cortex.","correct":false,"explanation":"The prefrontal cortex supports planning, judgement, and impulse control rather than being the main limbic structure for reward anticipation and motivation. The correct structure is the ventral striatum."},{"text":"The hippocampus.","correct":false,"explanation":"The hippocampus is mainly involved in memory formation and spatial processing. Reward anticipation and motivation are strongly associated with the ventral striatum."}]},{"id":"66dfd931-d524-4076-ab51-cfa272a559d1","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which limbic structure is involved in threat detection and emotional salience?","back":"The amygdala.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The amygdala.","correct":true,"explanation":"The amygdala evaluates emotionally significant information, particularly potential threats, and helps generate emotional responses to salient events."},{"text":"The ventral striatum.","correct":false,"explanation":"The ventral striatum is associated mainly with reward anticipation and motivation. Threat detection and emotional salience are functions strongly linked to the amygdala."},{"text":"The prefrontal cortex.","correct":false,"explanation":"The prefrontal cortex helps regulate and interpret emotional responses, but the limbic structure strongly involved in threat detection is the amygdala."},{"text":"The cerebellum.","correct":false,"explanation":"The cerebellum is primarily involved in coordination, balance, and motor learning. Threat detection and emotional salience are associated with the amygdala."}]},{"id":"7999a7d8-2f35-403a-97b3-aad361d5a79b","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"In adolescence, [ ] can become highly responsive before the [ ] fully matures.","back":"In adolescence, reward and emotion systems can become highly responsive before the prefrontal cortex fully matures.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"In adolescence, reward and emotion systems can become highly responsive before the prefrontal cortex fully matures.","correct":true,"explanation":"Reward and emotion systems can become highly responsive during adolescence, while the prefrontal cortex is still developing the control needed to regulate impulses and decisions."},{"text":"In adolescence, reward and emotion systems can become highly responsive before the cerebellum fully matures.","correct":false,"explanation":"The developmental imbalance concerns reward and emotion systems developing ahead of the prefrontal cortex, which supports control and decision-making. The cerebellum is not the key comparison here."},{"text":"In adolescence, memory systems can become highly responsive before the prefrontal cortex fully matures.","correct":false,"explanation":"The relevant systems are reward and emotion systems, not memory systems. Their heightened responsiveness can precede full maturation of the prefrontal cortex."},{"text":"In adolescence, prefrontal control systems can become highly responsive before the reward and emotion systems fully matures.","correct":false,"explanation":"The typical pattern is reversed here: reward and emotion systems become highly responsive before the prefrontal cortex fully matures, contributing to adolescent risk taking."}]},{"id":"6bd5cddb-a4ac-427f-a555-7549516ddc16","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why might teenagers understand risks in theory but still take risks in real life?","back":"Immediate reward and emotion can be strong in the moment.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Immediate reward and emotion can be strong in the moment.","correct":true,"explanation":"Knowledge of risk does not always control behaviour because immediate rewards and strong emotions can temporarily outweigh more deliberate consideration of future consequences."},{"text":"Long-term planning and logic can be strong in the moment.","correct":false,"explanation":"Strong long-term planning would generally reduce impulsive risk taking. The explanation for this behaviour is that immediate reward and emotion can dominate in the moment."},{"text":"Memory loss and confusion can be strong in the moment.","correct":false,"explanation":"Teenagers can often remember and understand risks, so memory loss is not the main explanation. Immediate reward and emotion can instead overpower that knowledge during decisions."},{"text":"Social isolation and boredom can be strong in the moment.","correct":false,"explanation":"These factors may influence behaviour but do not explain the specific gap between knowing risks and taking them. Immediate reward and emotion can be especially powerful in the moment."}]},{"id":"222b8559-2164-4505-83ed-ff3dfd8ddd7b","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Expected value is calculated as [ ].","back":"Expected value is calculated as $EV = p \\times v$.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"$$EV = p \\times v$","correct":true,"explanation":"Expected value is found by multiplying the probability of an outcome, $p$, by the value of that outcome, $v$. It combines likelihood with potential benefit or cost."},{"text":"$$EV = p + v$","correct":false,"explanation":"Adding probability and value does not calculate expected value because these quantities contribute multiplicatively. The correct formula is $EV = p \\times v$."},{"text":"$$EV = \\frac{p}{v}$","correct":false,"explanation":"Dividing probability by value produces the wrong relationship and can distort the outcome when value changes. Expected value is calculated by multiplying $p$ by $v$."},{"text":"$$EV = v - p$","correct":false,"explanation":"Subtracting probability from value is not the expected value calculation. The probability and value are multiplied, giving $EV = p \\times v$."}]},{"id":"8e2faadc-0858-4d4b-a861-891c01a08391","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why is the biggest possible reward not automatically the best choice?","back":"A low probability can make its expected value poor.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A low probability can make its expected value poor.","correct":true,"explanation":"Expected value depends on both reward size and probability. Even a very large reward can have a poor expected value when the chance of receiving it is sufficiently low."},{"text":"A high probability can make its expected value poor.","correct":false,"explanation":"A high probability generally increases expected value when the reward is positive. The correct point is that a low probability can make even a large reward’s expected value poor."},{"text":"A low reward can make its expected value certain.","correct":false,"explanation":"Reward size affects the value component but cannot make an outcome certain. A low probability can instead reduce expected value, even when the possible reward is large."},{"text":"A negative consequence can make its expected value large.","correct":false,"explanation":"A negative consequence lowers the value of an option rather than automatically making it attractive. The key reason a large reward may not be best is its low probability."}]},{"id":"62e5a269-2ada-47d7-861f-690e0aba6aef","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What is the expected value of a 25% chance of winning 20 points?","back":"5 points.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"5 points.","correct":true,"explanation":"Expected value is calculated by multiplying the probability by the reward: $0.25 \\times 20 = 5$. The expected value is therefore 5 points."},{"text":"4 points.","correct":false,"explanation":"Dividing 20 by 5 treats 25% as one fifth rather than one quarter. Multiplying the reward by $0.25$ gives the correct expected value of 5 points."},{"text":"10 points.","correct":false,"explanation":"This results from treating the probability as 50% rather than 25%. Multiplying 20 points by the actual probability, $0.25$, gives an expected value of 5 points."},{"text":"15 points.","correct":false,"explanation":"Subtracting 25% from the reward calculates the amount remaining, not the expected value. Expected value is $0.25 \\times 20$, which equals 5 points."}]},{"id":"bb9c976b-d771-4266-9a08-69806a4d0f5f","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"fMRI measures changes in [ ] as an indirect measure of [ ].","back":"fMRI measures changes in blood oxygenation as an indirect measure of brain activity.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"fMRI measures changes in blood oxygenation as an indirect measure of brain activity.","correct":true,"explanation":"Active brain areas require more oxygen, producing detectable changes in oxygenated blood. fMRI uses this BOLD response as an indirect measure of brain activity."},{"text":"fMRI measures changes in electrical impulses as an indirect measure of brain activity.","correct":false,"explanation":"Electrical impulses are measured more directly by techniques such as EEG, not fMRI. fMRI detects changes in blood oxygenation as an indirect measure of brain activity."},{"text":"fMRI measures changes in blood oxygenation as an indirect measure of skull activity.","correct":false,"explanation":"Blood oxygenation changes reflect the metabolic demands of active brain tissue, not activity in the skull. The BOLD signal therefore provides an indirect measure of brain activity."},{"text":"fMRI measures changes in neurotransmitter levels as an indirect measure of brain structure.","correct":false,"explanation":"Standard fMRI does not directly measure neurotransmitter levels or use them to map brain structure. It measures blood oxygenation changes as an indirect indicator of brain activity."}]},{"id":"276917b3-a37d-41ad-aaff-d3ff81f39313","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What was Barkley-Levenson and Galván’s aim?","back":"Investigate how adolescents represent expected value in the brain.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Investigate how adolescents represent expected value in the brain.","correct":true,"explanation":"The researchers examined adolescents’ neural representation of expected value, which combines reward probability and reward magnitude, to understand the biological processes underlying risky decision-making."},{"text":"Investigate how adolescents represent emotional memories in the brain.","correct":false,"explanation":"The study did not test the formation or retrieval of emotional memories. Its aim was to investigate how adolescents represent expected value in the brain during reward decisions."},{"text":"Investigate how adolescents represent social approval in the brain.","correct":false,"explanation":"Social approval and peer influence were not the quantities manipulated in this task. The researchers aimed to investigate adolescents’ neural representation of expected value."},{"text":"Investigate how adolescents represent visual attention in the brain.","correct":false,"explanation":"Although participants viewed stimuli, the research question was not about visual attention. The aim was to investigate how adolescents represent expected value in the brain."}]},{"id":"b44b5520-d288-4140-a135-40efd193cd86","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"In Barkley-Levenson and Galván’s task, what two reward features varied?","back":"

Probability of reward
Value of reward

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Probability of reward
Value of reward

","correct":true,"explanation":"The task varied both the likelihood of receiving a reward and its magnitude. These two quantities can be multiplied to calculate the expected value of each option."},{"text":"

Delay before reward
Effort needed for reward

","correct":false,"explanation":"Delay and effort are features used in other decision-making tasks, but they were not the manipulated reward features here. The study varied reward probability and reward value."},{"text":"

Probability of punishment
Severity of punishment

","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses reward-based decision-making with punishment or threat processing. The task varied the probability of receiving a reward and the value of that reward."},{"text":"

Colour of reward
Shape of reward

","correct":false,"explanation":"Colour and shape could alter visual presentation but do not determine expected value. The two reward features varied were the probability and value of the reward."}]},{"id":"8e642e40-2c48-43bb-a67d-ac28afcb3013","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What did adolescents’ sensitivity to expected value show?","back":"They were not choosing randomly or misunderstanding the task.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They were not choosing randomly or misunderstanding the task.","correct":true,"explanation":"Adolescents’ choices changed systematically with expected value, showing that they understood and used the reward information rather than responding randomly or misunderstanding the task."},{"text":"They were choosing completely randomly and misunderstanding the task.","correct":false,"explanation":"Systematic sensitivity to expected value is incompatible with completely random choice. It showed that adolescents understood the task and were not selecting options at random."},{"text":"They were ignoring reward probability and guessing throughout the task.","correct":false,"explanation":"Sensitivity to expected value requires using probability alongside reward magnitude. The findings therefore showed that adolescents were not guessing or misunderstanding how the task worked."},{"text":"They were unable to compare rewards or understand their value.","correct":false,"explanation":"Their behaviour varied according to expected value, demonstrating meaningful comparison of the options. This showed they were not choosing randomly or misunderstanding the task."}]},{"id":"ac65654e-ab75-4acd-ab09-dc1417489c8c","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which brain regions were important in adolescents’ risky decision-making?","back":"Reward-related regions, especially the ventral striatum.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Reward-related regions, especially the ventral striatum.","correct":true,"explanation":"The ventral striatum is central to reward valuation and showed an important role in adolescents’ responses to expected value, linking reward-system development with risky decision-making."},{"text":"Memory-related regions, especially the hippocampus.","correct":false,"explanation":"The hippocampus is primarily associated with forming and retrieving memories, not the key reward response identified here. Reward-related regions, especially the ventral striatum, were important."},{"text":"Language-related regions, especially Broca’s area.","correct":false,"explanation":"Broca’s area is mainly involved in speech production and was not the central region implicated in these reward decisions. The key areas were reward-related, especially the ventral striatum."},{"text":"Threat-related regions, especially the amygdala.","correct":false,"explanation":"The amygdala is strongly associated with emotional salience and threat processing, but the study highlighted reward-related regions. The ventral striatum was especially important in risky decision-making."}]},{"id":"e0dc67d0-967a-408c-bee2-d2d1d6ae660f","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What did Barkley-Levenson and Galván conclude about adolescent risky decision-making?","back":"It has a biological basis in developing reward-control systems.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It has a biological basis in developing reward-control systems.","correct":true,"explanation":"Adolescent risk-taking was linked to development in neural systems for processing rewards and controlling behaviour. This supports a biological basis involving the balance between these systems."},{"text":"It has a purely social basis in pressure from peers.","correct":false,"explanation":"Peer pressure may affect adolescent behaviour, but the neural findings do not support a purely social explanation. They indicate a biological basis in developing reward-control systems."},{"text":"It has a cognitive basis in failing to understand probability.","correct":false,"explanation":"Adolescents showed sensitivity to expected value, indicating that they understood and used probability information. The conclusion instead linked risky decisions to developing biological reward-control systems."},{"text":"It has a stable basis in fully developed control systems.","correct":false,"explanation":"Adolescent control systems are still developing rather than fully mature and stable. Risky decision-making was attributed to the development and balance of biological reward-control systems."}]},{"id":"9c9da204-7af0-407d-b37f-6832c0cac302","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What is a scientific strength of using fMRI in this study?","back":"It provides objective biological evidence, not just self-report.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It provides objective biological evidence, not just self-report.","correct":true,"explanation":"fMRI records measurable changes associated with brain activity, providing objective biological data. This allows researchers to support behavioural findings without relying entirely on participants’ subjective reports."},{"text":"It provides proof of biological causation, not just correlation.","correct":false,"explanation":"fMRI identifies associations between brain activity and behaviour but cannot by itself establish causation. Its strength is providing objective biological evidence rather than relying only on self-report."},{"text":"It provides direct recordings of neurons, not indirect evidence.","correct":false,"explanation":"fMRI measures blood oxygenation rather than directly recording individual neurons, so its signal is indirect. Its scientific strength is still the provision of objective biological evidence."},{"text":"It provides perfectly precise timing, not delayed measurements.","correct":false,"explanation":"The blood-oxygen response develops several seconds after neural activity, so fMRI has limited temporal resolution. Its strength is objective biological evidence, not perfectly precise timing."}]},{"id":"b992c568-f7a5-4159-8b1d-7f2be1581157","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why must fMRI findings be interpreted cautiously?","back":"fMRI measures blood oxygenation, not thoughts directly.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"fMRI measures blood oxygenation, not thoughts directly.","correct":true,"explanation":"fMRI detects changes in blood oxygenation associated with neural activity, so researchers must infer brain processes rather than measuring thoughts or mental states directly."},{"text":"fMRI measures electrical impulses, not thoughts directly.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses fMRI with techniques such as EEG, which measure electrical activity. The correct answer is blood oxygenation, meaning fMRI provides an indirect measure of brain activity."},{"text":"fMRI measures neurotransmitter release, not thoughts directly.","correct":false,"explanation":"fMRI does not directly measure neurotransmitters such as dopamine. It measures blood oxygenation, so conclusions about thoughts and brain processes require cautious interpretation."},{"text":"fMRI measures brain structure, not thoughts directly.","correct":false,"explanation":"Structural scans show anatomy, whereas fMRI measures changes in blood oxygenation linked to activity. Neither measures thoughts directly, but blood oxygenation is the relevant fMRI measure here."}]},{"id":"cb3d2c49-14c3-4bef-aa46-12c92f2dd830","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Ecological validity is how far a study’s [ ] apply to [ ].","back":"Ecological validity is how far a study’s setting and task apply to everyday life.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Ecological validity is how far a study’s setting and task apply to everyday life.","correct":true,"explanation":"Ecological validity concerns whether the study’s setting and task resemble situations encountered in everyday life, allowing findings to generalise beyond the research environment."},{"text":"Ecological validity is how far a study’s sample and results apply to other researchers.","correct":false,"explanation":"This describes neither the usual meaning nor the relevant generalisation. Ecological validity asks whether a study’s setting and task apply to everyday life."},{"text":"Ecological validity is how far a study’s variables and conclusions apply to laboratory controls.","correct":false,"explanation":"Laboratory controls concern experimental design rather than real-world relevance. Ecological validity is about how far the study’s setting and task apply to everyday life."},{"text":"Ecological validity is how far a study’s participants and measures apply to brain development.","correct":false,"explanation":"This focuses on participants and measurement rather than the realism of the research situation. The correct definition concerns how the setting and task apply to everyday life."}]},{"id":"a66fb533-d9db-49f1-aef9-27e6bdce44bc","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why may Barkley-Levenson and Galván have limited ecological validity?","back":"The scanner task differs from real risks involving peers and emotion.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The scanner task differs from real risks involving peers and emotion.","correct":true,"explanation":"Risk-taking in everyday adolescence often involves peer influence and emotional arousal, whereas a scanner task may be controlled and artificial, limiting how far the findings generalise."},{"text":"The scanner task directly recreates real risks involving peers and emotion.","correct":false,"explanation":"A scanner task usually cannot fully reproduce peer pressure and emotional real-world risks. The correct point is that the scanner task differs from those everyday situations."},{"text":"The scanner task measures long-term behaviour rather than immediate choices.","correct":false,"explanation":"A task in a scanner generally captures responses during a specific experiment, not necessarily long-term behaviour. Limited ecological validity mainly results from its difference from real peer and emotional risks."},{"text":"The scanner task excludes all biological measures of adolescent decision-making.","correct":false,"explanation":"The scanner provides a biological measure, although the task may not represent everyday behaviour. Its limited ecological validity comes from differing from real risks involving peers and emotion."}]},{"id":"a80d8543-0e8c-4026-ba90-a9a148fc4a0d","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why is the biological explanation of adolescent risk-taking reductionist?","back":"It may underplay social and cognitive factors.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It may underplay social and cognitive factors.","correct":true,"explanation":"A biological explanation can be reductionist if it explains adolescent risk-taking mainly through brain development while overlooking social influences, thinking processes and the situation surrounding a decision."},{"text":"It may underplay biological and neurological factors.","correct":false,"explanation":"The biological explanation is specifically focused on neurological development, so it is unlikely to underplay those factors. The reductionist criticism is that it may neglect social and cognitive factors."},{"text":"It may underplay genetic and hormonal factors.","correct":false,"explanation":"Genetic and hormonal influences are also biological factors that may be included in biological accounts. The key reductionist limitation is overlooking social and cognitive influences on risk-taking."},{"text":"It may underplay individual and developmental factors.","correct":false,"explanation":"Individual and developmental differences may be relevant, but this is not the specific reductionist criticism given. The explanation may underplay social and cognitive factors."}]},{"id":"18b828c0-7a57-457b-bb79-e7ba2695448d","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"A [ ] is emotional or socially pressured; a [ ] is calm with time to think.","back":"A hot decision is emotional or socially pressured; a cool decision is calm with time to think.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A hot decision is emotional or socially pressured; a cool decision is calm with time to think.","correct":true,"explanation":"Hot decisions occur under emotional arousal or social pressure, whereas cool decisions are made calmly with time to consider consequences and exercise self-control."},{"text":"A cool decision is emotional or socially pressured; a hot decision is calm with time to think.","correct":false,"explanation":"The two definitions have been reversed. A hot decision is emotional or socially pressured, while a cool decision is calm and made with time to think."},{"text":"A rapid decision is emotional or socially pressured; a delayed decision is calm with time to think.","correct":false,"explanation":"Speed is not the defining distinction in this terminology: a decision can be quick without being emotionally pressured. The correct terms are hot decision and cool decision."},{"text":"A social decision is emotional or socially pressured; a private decision is calm with time to think.","correct":false,"explanation":"Whether a decision is social or private does not by itself define its emotional state. The relevant contrast is between hot decisions and cool decisions."}]},{"id":"db960029-0859-477c-92b5-7251c1dcd5a9","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What two intervention goals follow from the reward-control imbalance?","back":"

Reduce immediate temptations
Increase support for self-control

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Reduce immediate temptations
Increase support for self-control

","correct":true,"explanation":"The imbalance suggests reducing exposure to strong immediate rewards while strengthening external support for self-control, helping adolescents manage situations in which reward systems may dominate control systems."},{"text":"

Increase immediate temptations
Reduce support for self-control

","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses both intervention goals and would intensify the reward-control imbalance. The appropriate approach is to reduce immediate temptations and increase support for self-control."},{"text":"

Delay long-term rewards
Increase support for risk-taking

","correct":false,"explanation":"Delaying long-term rewards and supporting risk-taking would not address excessive sensitivity to immediate rewards. Interventions should reduce immediate temptations and support self-control."},{"text":"

Remove social support
Increase access to immediate rewards

","correct":false,"explanation":"Removing support and increasing access to immediate rewards would make regulation harder. The intervention goals are to reduce immediate temptations and increase support for self-control."}]},{"id":"8c3e52c1-372b-414e-acbf-f1be7fca534a","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why might restricting peer passengers reduce risky driving by new young drivers?","back":"It reduces immediate social reward and peer pressure.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It reduces immediate social reward and peer pressure.","correct":true,"explanation":"Peers can increase the immediate reward associated with risky driving and create pressure to impress or conform. Restricting passengers removes some of these influences for new young drivers."},{"text":"It increases immediate social reward and peer pressure.","correct":false,"explanation":"Restricting peer passengers removes rather than increases opportunities for peer approval and pressure. The expected explanation is that it reduces immediate social reward and peer pressure."},{"text":"It reduces long-term financial reward and parental supervision.","correct":false,"explanation":"The mechanism concerns immediate social rewards and peer pressure, not long-term financial rewards. Passenger restrictions can reduce peer influence, although they do not remove parental supervision."},{"text":"It increases delayed social reward and independent decision-making.","correct":false,"explanation":"Passenger restrictions are intended to reduce immediate peer influence, not increase delayed social reward. They may support safer choices, but the specific mechanism is reduced immediate social reward and peer pressure."}]},{"id":"92bdbf6b-a11b-42c9-8bed-eaaaed36ba25","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"For under-16 participants in brain research, what consent safeguard is needed?","back":"Parental consent and the young person’s assent.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Parental consent and the young person’s assent.","correct":true,"explanation":"Under-16s generally require consent from a parent or guardian, while assent confirms that the young person also understands and agrees to take part voluntarily."},{"text":"Parental consent without the young person’s assent.","correct":false,"explanation":"Parental permission alone does not fully respect the young participant’s developing autonomy. The safeguard requires both parental consent and the young person’s assent."},{"text":"The young person’s assent without parental consent.","correct":false,"explanation":"Assent shows the young person agrees, but under-16 participants also need permission from a parent or guardian. Both parental consent and the young person’s assent are required."},{"text":"School consent and the researcher’s approval.","correct":false,"explanation":"A school and researcher cannot replace the required ethical permissions from the parent or guardian and the young participant. The safeguard is parental consent plus the young person’s assent."}]}]}],"examCountdown":{"examDate":"2027-05-18","paperLabel":"Paper 1"},"heading":"Pre-adult brain development (Biological)","title":"Pre-adult brain development (Biological) Flashcards","topbar":{"backHref":"/a-level/psychology/ocr/flashcards"},"topicSidebar":"$L38"}]}],"topicId":"1088875d-ac19-5237-b191-a0e2b9bf3b48","walled":"$L39"}],"$L3a","$L3b"]