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subjective or interpretive. Its scientific status therefore depends on the particular approach and methodology being assessed."},{"text":"It is scientific in every approach.","correct":false,"explanation":"This overgeneralises from approaches using controlled experiments. Psychology’s scientific status varies by approach and methodology because some areas meet objectivity, testing and replication criteria more fully than others."},{"text":"It is unscientific in every approach.","correct":false,"explanation":"This ignores controlled, empirical and replicable psychological research. The strongest judgement is that scientific status varies by approach and methodology rather than being uniformly absent."},{"text":"It depends only on the subject studied.","correct":false,"explanation":"Scientific status is determined mainly by how knowledge is investigated, not simply by its subject matter. Psychology’s status varies according to the approach and methodology used."}]},{"id":"5b40dcff-2ef1-4b53-aa9b-ff208c247a6a","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Scientific status means using systematic, empirical, objective, [ ] and [ ] methods.","back":"Scientific status means using systematic, empirical, objective, testable and replicable methods.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Scientific status means using systematic, empirical, objective, testable and replicable methods.","correct":true,"explanation":"Scientific claims must be open to testing and produce procedures that others can repeat. These qualities allow predictions to be checked and findings to be independently confirmed."},{"text":"Scientific status means using systematic, empirical, objective, subjective and unrepeatable methods.","correct":false,"explanation":"Subjectivity introduces personal interpretation, while unrepeatable procedures prevent independent checking. Scientific methods should instead be testable and replicable so evidence can be scrutinised and confirmed."},{"text":"Scientific status means using systematic, empirical, objective, testable and unreplicable methods.","correct":false,"explanation":"Testability alone is insufficient if other researchers cannot repeat the procedure. Scientific methods should be both testable and replicable, allowing claims to be challenged and findings confirmed."},{"text":"Scientific status means using systematic, empirical, objective, untestable and replicable methods.","correct":false,"explanation":"Repeating a method has limited scientific value when its claims cannot be tested. Scientific methods need to be testable as well as replicable so predictions can potentially be rejected."}]},{"id":"72891c7f-9c65-429f-8334-5280c2ba699d","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which evidence type comes from observation or measurement, not opinion?","back":"Empirical evidence.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Empirical evidence.","correct":true,"explanation":"Empirical evidence is obtained through direct observation, experience or measurement. It supports scientific conclusions with collected data rather than relying solely on beliefs, opinions or speculation."},{"text":"Anecdotal evidence.","correct":false,"explanation":"Anecdotal evidence consists of informal personal accounts and is vulnerable to selective recall and bias. Evidence gathered systematically through observation or measurement is empirical evidence."},{"text":"Theoretical evidence.","correct":false,"explanation":"A theory provides an explanatory framework rather than evidence obtained directly from observation or measurement. Data collected from observable experience are classified as empirical evidence."},{"text":"Subjective evidence.","correct":false,"explanation":"Subjective evidence depends on personal viewpoints or interpretations rather than independent measurement. Evidence based on systematic observation or measurement is correctly described as empirical evidence."}]},{"id":"5bc420be-48c6-4475-91cf-f0ef62bda976","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Why does objectivity increase scientific status?","back":"It reduces personal bias.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It reduces personal bias.","correct":true,"explanation":"Objectivity requires researchers to base conclusions on observable evidence and standardised procedures. This limits the influence of personal expectations, opinions and preferences on findings."},{"text":"It increases personal bias.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the effect of objectivity. Objective procedures reduce personal bias by limiting how far researchers’ expectations or opinions can influence data collection and interpretation."},{"text":"It removes the need for replication.","correct":false,"explanation":"Objectivity cannot replace replication because even an objective study may produce an unreliable result. Objectivity increases scientific status by reducing personal bias, while replication checks consistency."},{"text":"It proves a causal relationship.","correct":false,"explanation":"Objectivity limits researcher bias but does not itself establish cause and effect, which requires control of variables. It increases scientific status because it makes conclusions less personally influenced."}]},{"id":"7fe51163-8e6a-45cc-b201-a39aa56af764","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What trade-off can laboratory control create in psychology?","back":"

Tests one main variable more clearly.
May reduce ecological validity if artificial.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Tests one main variable more clearly.
May reduce ecological validity if artificial.

","correct":true,"explanation":"Laboratory control isolates the effect of an independent variable, making causal relationships clearer. However, an artificial setting or task may make behaviour less representative of everyday life."},{"text":"

Tests many variables at the same time.
May increase ecological validity if artificial.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Laboratory control usually isolates one main independent variable rather than testing many simultaneously. Artificial conditions may reduce, not increase, ecological validity because they differ from real life."},{"text":"

Removes all participant variables from the study.
Guarantees population validity through standardisation.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Control cannot eliminate every individual difference, and standardisation does not guarantee a representative sample. Its genuine advantage is clearer variable testing, balanced against potentially reduced ecological validity."},{"text":"

Produces richer qualitative data more easily.
May reduce reliability if standardised.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Laboratory control is primarily used to isolate variables, not to produce richer qualitative accounts. Standardisation generally increases reliability, although artificial conditions can reduce ecological validity."}]},{"id":"3835e7c2-7144-441a-8b42-ed682e1b5ac9","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Why is replicability important before accepting a finding?","back":"It checks the finding occurs again.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It checks the finding occurs again.","correct":true,"explanation":"Replication tests whether a result can be obtained again using the same procedures. Repeated findings are less likely to reflect chance, error or features of one sample."},{"text":"It checks the researcher caused the finding.","correct":false,"explanation":"Replication checks whether a result recurs, not whether the researcher caused it. Causation is assessed through controlled manipulation of an independent variable and measurement of its effect."},{"text":"It checks the finding applies to everyone.","correct":false,"explanation":"Replication does not prove universal generalisability because repeated studies may still use limited samples. It is important because it checks whether the finding occurs again."},{"text":"It checks the finding is completely objective.","correct":false,"explanation":"Repeating a study cannot guarantee complete objectivity, although independent replication may reveal bias. Its main purpose is to check whether the finding can be obtained again."}]},{"id":"4db0e8f5-49d9-4f65-925e-1cf4ac897b52","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which criterion requires predictions that could be shown wrong?","back":"Falsifiability.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Falsifiability.","correct":true,"explanation":"Falsifiability requires a theory to generate predictions that evidence could potentially disprove. A claim that accommodates every possible result cannot be meaningfully tested scientifically."},{"text":"Replicability.","correct":false,"explanation":"Replicability concerns whether a study and its findings can be repeated, not whether a prediction could be disproved. The criterion requiring possible disconfirmation is falsifiability."},{"text":"Objectivity.","correct":false,"explanation":"Objectivity concerns minimising personal bias in methods and interpretation. Predictions that could be shown wrong meet the separate scientific criterion of falsifiability."},{"text":"Ecological validity.","correct":false,"explanation":"Ecological validity concerns how well findings represent real-world behaviour. The requirement that predictions could be contradicted by evidence is known as falsifiability."}]},{"id":"1803bbe1-155b-4ffb-8b53-dcfb0e8e9484","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"A theory that explains [ ] after the event is harder to treat as scientific.","back":"A theory that explains every possible outcome after the event is harder to treat as scientific.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"every possible outcome","correct":true,"explanation":"If a theory can explain every possible result after it occurs, no observation can disprove it. This makes the theory unfalsifiable and therefore weakens its scientific status."},{"text":"one specific outcome","correct":false,"explanation":"Explaining one clearly specified outcome can support a testable prediction and does not automatically undermine scientific status. The problem arises when a theory explains every possible outcome retrospectively."},{"text":"only its predicted outcome","correct":false,"explanation":"A theory focused on its predicted outcome can be falsified if a different result occurs. Scientific status is weakened when every possible outcome can instead be explained after the event."},{"text":"a measurable outcome","correct":false,"explanation":"A measurable outcome supports empirical testing rather than making a theory less scientific. The concern is a theory that retrospectively explains every possible outcome and cannot be falsified."}]},{"id":"7b516c97-35ae-4da1-acd0-aed49b783e36","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How does operationalising variables improve scientific status?","back":"It makes variables clearly measurable or testable.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It makes variables clearly measurable or testable.","correct":true,"explanation":"Operationalisation defines abstract concepts in observable, measurable terms, allowing researchers to test variables objectively and other researchers to replicate the investigation."},{"text":"It removes all possible extraneous variables.","correct":false,"explanation":"Controlling extraneous variables improves internal validity, but operationalisation specifically makes variables measurable or testable by stating exactly how they will be observed or manipulated."},{"text":"It makes findings generalisable to all populations.","correct":false,"explanation":"Operational definitions do not ensure that findings apply to other populations or settings. They improve scientific status by making variables clearly measurable or testable."},{"text":"It proves a causal relationship between variables.","correct":false,"explanation":"Operationalising variables does not prove that one variable causes another. It improves scientific status by defining variables in clearly measurable or testable terms."}]},{"id":"d3694c36-186d-4b89-93b6-481b4f44aa78","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Using the same instructions, timings and materials is a [ ].","back":"Using the same instructions, timings and materials is a standardised procedure.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"standardised procedure","correct":true,"explanation":"A standardised procedure keeps instructions, timings and materials consistent for every participant, improving replicability and reducing unwanted variation between conditions."},{"text":"repeated measures design","correct":false,"explanation":"A repeated measures design means the same participants complete every condition; it does not refer to keeping instructions, timings and materials consistent. The correct term is standardised procedure."},{"text":"counterbalanced design","correct":false,"explanation":"A counterbalanced design changes the order of conditions to control order effects. Using identical instructions, timings and materials is instead a standardised procedure."},{"text":"randomised allocation","correct":false,"explanation":"A randomised allocation assigns participants to conditions by chance; it does not describe consistent instructions, timings and materials. That consistency constitutes a standardised procedure."}]},{"id":"e167a69f-6cf9-4c0c-8ea4-2e84fc90b7b6","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"[ ] data are categories; [ ] data are ordered or ranked.","back":"Nominal data are categories; ordinal data are ordered or ranked.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Nominal data are categories; ordinal data are ordered or ranked.","correct":true,"explanation":"Nominal data place observations into distinct categories without an inherent order, whereas ordinal data can be arranged in a meaningful order or rank."},{"text":"Ordinal data are categories; nominal data are ordered or ranked.","correct":false,"explanation":"The two levels have been reversed: nominal data consist of unordered categories, while ordinal data have a meaningful order or ranking."},{"text":"Ratio data are categories; ordinal data are ordered or ranked.","correct":false,"explanation":"Ratio data are numerical measurements with equal intervals and a true zero, not simply categories. Nominal data are categories, while ordinal data are ordered or ranked."},{"text":"Nominal data are categories; interval data are ordered or ranked.","correct":false,"explanation":"Interval data use numerical scales with equal intervals rather than ranks alone. Nominal data are categories, whereas ordinal data are ordered or ranked."}]},{"id":"8b2c970b-5cad-4523-91ed-6f6004251e0f","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"For ordinal differences, unrelated groups use [ ]; related groups use [ ].","back":"For ordinal differences, unrelated groups use Mann-Whitney U; related groups use Wilcoxon signed-ranks.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"For ordinal differences, unrelated groups use Mann-Whitney U; related groups use Wilcoxon signed-ranks.","correct":true,"explanation":"Mann-Whitney U compares ordinal scores from independent groups, while Wilcoxon signed-ranks compares paired scores from related participants or repeated measures."},{"text":"For ordinal differences, unrelated groups use Wilcoxon signed-ranks; related groups use Mann-Whitney U.","correct":false,"explanation":"The tests have been reversed: Wilcoxon signed-ranks requires related scores, whereas Mann-Whitney U is used when the two groups are unrelated."},{"text":"For ordinal differences, unrelated groups use unrelated t-test; related groups use related t-test.","correct":false,"explanation":"These parametric t-tests are selected for interval data meeting their assumptions, not ordinal data. Ordinal differences require Mann-Whitney U for unrelated groups and Wilcoxon signed-ranks for related groups."},{"text":"For ordinal differences, unrelated groups use Mann-Whitney U; related groups use Spearman’s rho.","correct":false,"explanation":"Spearman’s rho tests a correlation rather than a difference between related conditions. Related ordinal differences use Wilcoxon signed-ranks, while unrelated groups use Mann-Whitney U."}]},{"id":"f8be0f73-46aa-4488-a916-47c7e124aff3","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"For a correlation use [ ]; for nominal association or difference use [ ].","back":"For a correlation use Spearman’s rho; for nominal association or difference use Chi-square.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"For a correlation use Spearman’s rho; for nominal association or difference use Chi-square.","correct":true,"explanation":"Spearman’s rho tests for a relationship between co-variables using ranked data, while Chi-square tests associations or differences involving nominal frequencies."},{"text":"For a correlation use Wilcoxon signed-ranks; for nominal association or difference use Chi-square.","correct":false,"explanation":"Wilcoxon signed-ranks compares two related sets of ordinal scores rather than testing a correlation. Spearman’s rho tests correlation, while Chi-square handles nominal frequencies."},{"text":"For a correlation use Spearman’s rho; for nominal association or difference use Mann-Whitney U.","correct":false,"explanation":"Mann-Whitney U compares ordinal scores from unrelated groups, so it is unsuitable for nominal association. Spearman’s rho tests correlation and Chi-square tests nominal association or difference."},{"text":"For a correlation use Chi-square; for nominal association or difference use Spearman’s rho.","correct":false,"explanation":"The tests serve different purposes and cannot be exchanged: Spearman’s rho measures correlation between ranked variables, whereas Chi-square analyses nominal frequencies."}]},{"id":"29b67af4-111d-41cc-a085-65ca68e5340f","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"For interval differences, unrelated groups use an [ ]; related groups use a [ ].","back":"For interval differences, unrelated groups use an unrelated t-test; related groups use a related t-test.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"For interval differences, unrelated groups use an unrelated t-test; related groups use a related t-test.","correct":true,"explanation":"An unrelated t-test compares interval scores from independent groups, whereas a related t-test compares paired scores from matched participants or repeated measures."},{"text":"For interval differences, unrelated groups use an related t-test; related groups use a unrelated t-test.","correct":false,"explanation":"The group designs have been reversed: an unrelated t-test compares independent groups, while a related t-test is required for paired or repeated-measures scores."},{"text":"For interval differences, unrelated groups use an unrelated t-test; related groups use a unrelated t-test.","correct":false,"explanation":"Using an unrelated t-test for both ignores the paired nature of the second dataset. Related groups require a related t-test because their scores are linked."},{"text":"For interval differences, unrelated groups use an unrelated t-test; related groups use a Wilcoxon signed-ranks test.","correct":false,"explanation":"Wilcoxon signed-ranks is the non-parametric test conventionally selected for related ordinal data. Related interval differences use a related t-test, alongside an unrelated t-test for independent groups."}]},{"id":"77a2dc7a-3e4f-4dde-b21f-0497f499eaee","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which default significance level is often used in psychology?","back":"$p \\leq 0.05$.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"$p \\leq 0.05$.","correct":true,"explanation":"A result is conventionally judged significant when its probability under the null hypothesis is 5% or less, represented by $p \\leq 0.05$."},{"text":"$p \\leq 0.01$.","correct":false,"explanation":"A 1% threshold is more stringent and may be chosen when a Type I error would be especially serious. Psychology commonly defaults to $p \\leq 0.05$."},{"text":"$p \\geq 0.05$.","correct":false,"explanation":"The inequality is reversed: significance requires a probability at or below the threshold, not at or above it. The usual criterion is $p \\leq 0.05$."},{"text":"$p \\leq 0.50$.","correct":false,"explanation":"A threshold of 50% would classify weak evidence as significant and create many false positives. The conventional default in psychology is $p \\leq 0.05$."}]},{"id":"9cb04044-374c-4dda-8c99-e79df66a6121","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"A Type I error is a [ ]; a Type II error is a [ ].","back":"A Type I error is a false positive; a Type II error is a false negative.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A Type I error is a false positive; a Type II error is a false negative.","correct":true,"explanation":"A Type I error means rejecting a true null hypothesis, producing a false positive. A Type II error means retaining a false null hypothesis, producing a false negative."},{"text":"A Type I error is a false negative; a Type II error is a false positive.","correct":false,"explanation":"The error types have been reversed: Type I is a false positive caused by rejecting a true null hypothesis, while Type II is a false negative."},{"text":"A Type I error is a false positive; a Type II error is a false positive.","correct":false,"explanation":"Only Type I is a false positive. Type II is a false negative because a real effect is missed and the false null hypothesis is retained."},{"text":"A Type I error is a false negative; a Type II error is a false negative.","correct":false,"explanation":"Only Type II is a false negative. Type I is a false positive because the researcher reports an effect despite the null hypothesis being true."}]},{"id":"3e7f9fad-e30e-442b-9b79-10c038bdd31d","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How can controlled scientific research benefit therapies or policies?","back":"It gives stronger evidence for effective interventions.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It gives stronger evidence for effective interventions.","correct":true,"explanation":"Controlled research tests interventions systematically, helping researchers identify whether they genuinely work and providing stronger evidence for therapies or policies based on the results."},{"text":"It guarantees that interventions work for everyone.","correct":false,"explanation":"Controlled research cannot guarantee universal success because people and circumstances differ. The correct answer is that it gives stronger evidence for effective interventions by testing them systematically."},{"text":"It removes the need for ethical approval.","correct":false,"explanation":"Scientific control does not remove ethical responsibilities; studies still require ethical approval. The correct answer is that it gives stronger evidence for effective interventions."},{"text":"It makes psychological explanations completely objective.","correct":false,"explanation":"Controls can reduce bias but cannot make every psychological explanation completely objective. The correct answer is that controlled research gives stronger evidence for effective interventions."}]},{"id":"15212bfb-f435-435c-bf3f-e58d356719f6","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which memory study showed leading questions can distort memory?","back":"Loftus and Palmer 1974.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Loftus and Palmer 1974.","correct":true,"explanation":"Loftus and Palmer found that changing the wording of questions about a car accident influenced participants’ speed estimates and later memory reports."},{"text":"Yuille and Cutshall 1986.","correct":false,"explanation":"Yuille and Cutshall investigated eyewitness memory for a real shooting, not the effect of leading questions. The correct study is Loftus and Palmer 1974."},{"text":"Bartlett 1932.","correct":false,"explanation":"Bartlett studied reconstructive memory using stories such as War of the Ghosts, rather than experimentally testing leading questions. The correct study is Loftus and Palmer 1974."},{"text":"Baddeley 1966.","correct":false,"explanation":"Baddeley examined coding in short-term and long-term memory, especially acoustic and semantic coding. The study demonstrating leading-question effects was Loftus and Palmer 1974."}]},{"id":"f951c299-151c-40b0-89e4-ba66713e02dc","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why can scientific status attract research funding?","back":"Rigorous, measurable research appears useful.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Rigorous, measurable research appears useful.","correct":true,"explanation":"Funders are more likely to support research that is systematic, measurable and appears capable of producing useful findings or applications."},{"text":"It makes all findings immediately applicable.","correct":false,"explanation":"Scientific status does not make every finding immediately useful; applications still require supporting evidence. The correct answer is that rigorous, measurable research appears useful to funders."},{"text":"It prevents researchers from disagreeing.","correct":false,"explanation":"Scientific research allows disagreement and debate, provided claims are tested. The correct answer is that rigorous, measurable research appears useful and can attract funding."},{"text":"It guarantees practical results in every study.","correct":false,"explanation":"Even rigorous studies may produce limited or inconclusive findings, so practical results are not guaranteed. The correct answer is that rigorous, measurable research appears useful."}]},{"id":"d992559f-f196-497c-9e3a-3602336c2956","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Why can psychology appear less unified than chemistry?","back":"It has several competing paradigms.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It has several competing paradigms.","correct":true,"explanation":"Unlike chemistry’s greater theoretical unity, psychology contains competing paradigms such as behaviourism, cognitive psychology, biological psychology and psychodynamic theory."},{"text":"It uses one universally accepted paradigm.","correct":false,"explanation":"Psychology is less unified partly because different approaches compete, rather than sharing one universally accepted paradigm. The correct answer is that it has several competing paradigms."},{"text":"It studies only observable behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"Studying observable behaviour describes behaviourism, but psychology also studies cognition, biology and unconscious processes. The correct answer is that it has several competing paradigms."},{"text":"It avoids theoretical disagreements.","correct":false,"explanation":"Psychology contains substantial theoretical disagreement between approaches, which contributes to its less unified appearance. The correct answer is that it has several competing paradigms."}]},{"id":"900fa51c-791a-47d6-91f5-b86621855384","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why can replication debates strengthen psychology’s scientific status?","back":"They show self-correction through repeated testing.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They show self-correction through repeated testing.","correct":true,"explanation":"Attempts to replicate findings can confirm robust results or expose weaknesses, demonstrating that psychology can identify and correct problems through repeated testing."},{"text":"They prove every finding is correct.","correct":false,"explanation":"Replication can reveal unreliable findings, so it cannot prove every result correct. The correct answer is that replication debates show self-correction through repeated testing."},{"text":"They remove the need for new theories.","correct":false,"explanation":"Replication tests existing findings but does not remove the need for new theories or explanations. The correct answer is that it shows self-correction through repeated testing."},{"text":"They replace evidence with professional opinion.","correct":false,"explanation":"Replication debates focus on gathering and evaluating evidence, not replacing it with opinion. The correct answer is that they show self-correction through repeated testing."}]},{"id":"c0e314c8-3865-4004-a4db-9f176b387312","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which cost occurs when human behaviour is explained too simply?","back":"Reductionism.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Reductionism.","correct":true,"explanation":"Reductionism explains complex behaviour by reducing it to simpler components, which can overlook interactions between biological, psychological and social influences."},{"text":"Ecological validity.","correct":false,"explanation":"Ecological validity concerns whether findings apply to real-world settings, not the cost of explaining behaviour using overly simple accounts. The correct answer is reductionism."},{"text":"Ethnocentrism.","correct":false,"explanation":"Ethnocentrism involves judging other cultures using the standards of one’s own culture. The correct term for explaining behaviour too simply is reductionism."},{"text":"Pseudoscience.","correct":false,"explanation":"Pseudoscience refers to claims presented as scientific without adequate supporting evidence. Explaining human behaviour too simply is the criticism known as reductionism."}]},{"id":"14941d45-9650-4bc3-870d-a8620a947ea7","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Turning grief, identity or happiness into scores may remove [ ] and [ ].","back":"Turning grief, identity or happiness into scores may remove depth and context.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Turning grief, identity or happiness into scores may remove depth and context.","correct":true,"explanation":"Quantifying experiences can make them easier to compare, but may strip away the richness of personal meaning and the circumstances in which they occur."},{"text":"Turning grief, identity or happiness into scores may remove reliability and validity.","correct":false,"explanation":"Reliability and validity describe the quality of measurements, not the richness lost when experiences are reduced to scores. The correct terms are depth and context."},{"text":"Turning grief, identity or happiness into scores may remove objectivity and replicability.","correct":false,"explanation":"Scoring usually aims to increase objectivity and replicability. The criticism is that quantification may remove depth and context from complex human experiences."},{"text":"Turning grief, identity or happiness into scores may remove prediction and control.","correct":false,"explanation":"Prediction and control are aims of scientific psychology, not the personal qualities most directly lost through scoring. The correct terms are depth and context."}]},{"id":"6b8514ae-280e-431a-a943-e91343dcd52b","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which ethical issue is most directly shown by Little Albert’s distress?","back":"Protection from harm.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Protection from harm.","correct":true,"explanation":"Little Albert was conditioned to fear objects and experienced distress, showing why psychological research must protect participants from physical and psychological harm."},{"text":"Informed consent.","correct":false,"explanation":"Informed consent concerns agreeing to participate after receiving sufficient information. Little Albert’s distress most directly demonstrates the ethical requirement of protection from harm."},{"text":"Right to withdraw.","correct":false,"explanation":"The right to withdraw allows participants to leave a study, but Albert’s distress primarily illustrates the risk of psychological harm. The correct issue is protection from harm."},{"text":"Confidentiality.","correct":false,"explanation":"Confidentiality concerns protecting participants’ personal information, not preventing distress caused by experimental procedures. Little Albert most directly illustrates protection from harm."}]},{"id":"220ad2be-5a15-4bb6-99f1-958784def1f7","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What makes biological methods look highly scientific?","back":"Objective, quantitative measures such as brain scans.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Objective, quantitative measures such as brain scans.","correct":true,"explanation":"Biological methods often produce numerical, directly recorded data. Technologies such as brain scans therefore appear objective, measurable and less dependent on a researcher’s personal interpretation."},{"text":"Detailed, qualitative accounts from individual case studies.","correct":false,"explanation":"Detailed personal case studies usually produce subjective, individualised evidence rather than highly objective scientific data. Biological methods gain scientific status from quantitative measures such as brain scans."},{"text":"Subjective interpretations of unconscious conflicts and desires.","correct":false,"explanation":"Interpretations of unconscious conflicts are associated with psychodynamic methods and are difficult to test objectively. Biological methods appear scientific because they use quantitative measures such as brain scans."},{"text":"Personal, reflective descriptions of emotional experiences.","correct":false,"explanation":"Personal reflections are vulnerable to self-report bias and cannot be independently verified easily. Biological methods look highly scientific because brain scans provide objective, quantitative measurements."}]},{"id":"ecfe8481-7e63-45a6-9feb-6137ff96a7ae","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why are psychodynamic methods often lower in scientific status?","back":"Subjective interpretations are hard to replicate.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Subjective interpretations are hard to replicate.","correct":true,"explanation":"Psychodynamic researchers may interpret dreams, slips and behaviour differently, making findings dependent on personal judgement. This subjectivity makes procedures and conclusions difficult to reproduce consistently."},{"text":"Controlled variables make findings too easy to replicate.","correct":false,"explanation":"Precisely controlled variables generally increase scientific status by supporting replication and causal conclusions. Psychodynamic methods have lower status because their subjective interpretations are difficult to replicate."},{"text":"Observable behaviours are measured directly and objectively.","correct":false,"explanation":"Direct measurement of observable behaviour is a behaviourist strength and usually improves objectivity. Psychodynamic methods instead rely on subjective interpretations that other researchers may not reproduce."},{"text":"Physiological measurements produce precise numerical data.","correct":false,"explanation":"Quantitative physiological measurements are characteristic of biological approaches and typically strengthen scientific credibility. Psychodynamic methods rank lower because subjective interpretations are difficult to replicate reliably."}]},{"id":"f1256af5-c55a-4903-ac1e-0b06c42a4bd6","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What scientific strength is linked to behaviourist methods?","back":"Observable behaviour and controlled cause-effect experiments.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Observable behaviour and controlled cause-effect experiments.","correct":true,"explanation":"Behaviourists study actions that can be directly measured and use controlled experiments to manipulate variables. This supports objective observation, replication and conclusions about causal relationships."},{"text":"Unconscious conflicts and subjective dream interpretations.","correct":false,"explanation":"Unconscious conflicts cannot be observed directly and their interpretation is subjective, reflecting psychodynamic rather than behaviourist methods. Behaviourism gains scientific strength from observable behaviour and controlled experiments."},{"text":"Private thoughts and uncontrolled introspective observations.","correct":false,"explanation":"Private thoughts require inference or self-report, so they are not directly observable behavioural data. Behaviourist methods are scientific because they measure observable behaviour in controlled cause-effect experiments."},{"text":"Inherited traits and objective brain-imaging evidence.","correct":false,"explanation":"Inherited characteristics and brain-imaging evidence belong primarily to the biological approach, not behaviourism. The behaviourist scientific strength is its use of observable behaviour and controlled cause-effect experiments."}]},{"id":"172b97b6-4fa3-459b-8d5a-5564b39a6b6d","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What limits cognitive psychology’s objectivity?","back":"Mental processes are inferred, not directly observed.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Mental processes are inferred, not directly observed.","correct":true,"explanation":"Cognitive psychologists cannot directly observe internal processes such as memory or attention. They infer these processes from behaviour, introducing interpretation that limits complete objectivity."},{"text":"Observable behaviours are inferred, not directly measured.","correct":false,"explanation":"Observable behaviour can be measured directly, so describing it as inaccessible reverses the distinction between behaviour and cognition. Objectivity is limited because internal mental processes must be inferred."},{"text":"Controlled experiments prevent variables being measured objectively.","correct":false,"explanation":"Controlled experiments generally strengthen objectivity by standardising conditions and limiting extraneous variables. Cognitive psychology is less fully objective because mental processes are inferred rather than observed directly."},{"text":"Brain activity cannot be recorded using objective measures.","correct":false,"explanation":"Brain activity can be recorded using objective biological measures such as scans. The central limitation is that cognitive processes themselves remain inferred from observable responses rather than directly observed."}]},{"id":"ea4eee0b-ec12-4f04-852a-58b87bc3fc15","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What limits positive psychology when it uses questionnaires?","back":"Self-report bias.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Self-report bias.","correct":true,"explanation":"Questionnaire responses depend on participants reporting their own experiences accurately. Social desirability, inaccurate recall or misunderstanding can therefore distort positive psychology findings."},{"text":"Observer bias.","correct":false,"explanation":"Observer bias concerns expectations affecting how observed behaviour is recorded, whereas questionnaires collect participants’ own responses. Their characteristic limitation is self-report bias, including social desirability and inaccurate recall."},{"text":"Publication bias.","correct":false,"explanation":"Publication bias concerns which study results are selected for publication, not how questionnaire answers are produced. Questionnaires are specifically limited by self-report bias in participants’ responses."},{"text":"Experimenter bias.","correct":false,"explanation":"Experimenter bias involves researchers unintentionally influencing procedures or participants. The direct problem created by using questionnaires is self-report bias, as participants may answer inaccurately or desirably."}]}]}],"examCountdown":{"examDate":"2027-05-18","paperLabel":"Component 1"},"heading":"Controversy: Scientific status","title":"Controversy: Scientific status Flashcards","topbar":{"backHref":"/a-level/psychology/eduqas/flashcards"},"topicSidebar":"$L38"}]}],"topicId":"86ebb6dd-30dd-50f8-b808-10dec7063013","walled":"$L39"}],"$L3a","$L3b"]