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person’s interpretation of an event, so different meanings can produce different feelings about the same experience."},{"text":"They react according to their inherited neurotransmitter levels.","correct":false,"explanation":"Inherited neurotransmitter levels belong to a biological explanation. The cognitive approach says different emotions arise because each person interprets what the event means differently."},{"text":"They react according to the reinforcement the event provides.","correct":false,"explanation":"Reinforcement is central to the behaviourist approach and explains learned responses. The cognitive approach instead focuses on what each person thinks the event means."},{"text":"They react according to their unconscious childhood conflicts.","correct":false,"explanation":"Unconscious childhood conflicts are part of the psychodynamic approach. The cognitive explanation is that people feel differently because they interpret the meaning of the event differently."}]},{"id":"a1a704a4-77b2-4bd6-9df0-292587a68b1f","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"A [ ] is a mental framework used to organise and interpret information.","back":"A schema is a mental framework used to organise and interpret information.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"schema","correct":true,"explanation":"A schema is a mental framework formed from knowledge and experience. It organises information and guides how people interpret new situations."},{"text":"heuristic","correct":false,"explanation":"A heuristic is a mental shortcut used to make judgements quickly, rather than a framework for organising information. The correct term for such a framework is schema."},{"text":"reinforcer","correct":false,"explanation":"A reinforcer is a consequence that increases the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated. A mental framework that organises and interprets information is a schema."},{"text":"neurotransmitter","correct":false,"explanation":"A neurotransmitter is a chemical messenger that carries signals between neurons, not a mental framework. The cognitive term for an organising framework is schema."}]},{"id":"cdb77509-32cd-421a-bfd8-6571eaa47ddb","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How can a biased schema maintain distress?","back":"It makes situations seem overly negative.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It makes situations seem overly negative.","correct":true,"explanation":"A biased schema filters and interprets information negatively, causing situations to appear worse than they are and reinforcing distressing thoughts and emotions."},{"text":"It makes situations seem more rewarding.","correct":false,"explanation":"Seeing situations as more rewarding would not normally maintain distress. A biased schema maintains distress by making situations seem overly negative."},{"text":"It makes situations seem completely neutral.","correct":false,"explanation":"A neutral interpretation would not involve the negative bias that sustains distress. A biased schema instead makes situations appear overly negative."},{"text":"It makes situations seem objectively accurate.","correct":false,"explanation":"Schemas can distort interpretation rather than guaranteeing objective accuracy. A negatively biased schema maintains distress by making situations seem overly negative."}]},{"id":"d7becf57-6ba1-4bb6-a1e3-706baafbbf9a","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Cognitive therapy aims to change unhelpful [ ] and [ ] so emotions and functioning improve.","back":"Cognitive therapy aims to change unhelpful interpretations and behaviours so emotions and functioning improve.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Cognitive therapy aims to change unhelpful interpretations and behaviours so emotions and functioning improve.","correct":true,"explanation":"Cognitive therapy targets maladaptive interpretations and associated behaviours. Changing these patterns can reduce distress and improve how effectively a person functions."},{"text":"Cognitive therapy aims to change unhelpful interpretations and emotions so emotions and functioning improve.","correct":false,"explanation":"Emotions are primarily expected to improve as a consequence of therapy, rather than being directly changed. Cognitive therapy targets unhelpful interpretations and behaviours."},{"text":"Cognitive therapy aims to change unhelpful instincts and behaviours so emotions and functioning improve.","correct":false,"explanation":"Instincts are biologically based tendencies and are not the cognitive target described here. Therapy aims to modify unhelpful interpretations and behaviours."},{"text":"Cognitive therapy aims to change unhelpful interpretations and neurotransmitters so emotions and functioning improve.","correct":false,"explanation":"Directly changing neurotransmitters is associated with biological treatments such as medication. Cognitive therapy aims to change unhelpful interpretations and behaviours."}]},{"id":"2e37ec1d-a5cd-44ca-adab-2057db29259c","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Beck argued that depression is maintained by quick, believable [ ].","back":"Beck argued that depression is maintained by quick, believable automatic negative thoughts.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"automatic negative thoughts","correct":true,"explanation":"Beck proposed that automatic negative thoughts arise rapidly, feel believable and contribute to the continuing negative emotions and behaviour associated with depression."},{"text":"negative core beliefs","correct":false,"explanation":"Core beliefs are deep, enduring assumptions rather than the quick thoughts described in the sentence. Beck called these rapid, believable cognitions automatic negative thoughts."},{"text":"conditioned fear responses","correct":false,"explanation":"Conditioned fear responses belong to behavioural explanations and are especially associated with anxiety. Beck argued that depression is maintained by automatic negative thoughts."},{"text":"unconscious defence mechanisms","correct":false,"explanation":"Defence mechanisms are psychodynamic processes operating outside awareness, not rapid conscious cognitions. Beck identified automatic negative thoughts as a factor maintaining depression."}]},{"id":"2e69406b-9a42-46d5-9016-90f04a6cedbe","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"A student says, \"This presentation will be a complete disaster.\" Which cognitive distortion is shown?","back":"Catastrophising.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Catastrophising.","correct":true,"explanation":"Predicting that a presentation will become a complete disaster greatly exaggerates the likely negative outcome, which is the defining feature of catastrophising."},{"text":"Overgeneralisation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Overgeneralisation draws a broad conclusion from one or a few experiences. Predicting an extreme disastrous outcome instead demonstrates catastrophising."},{"text":"Mind reading.","correct":false,"explanation":"Mind reading involves assuming what other people think without evidence. Predicting that the presentation itself will be a complete disaster is catastrophising."},{"text":"Personalisation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Personalisation involves taking excessive responsibility for events or assuming they relate personally to oneself. Exaggerating a future outcome as disastrous is catastrophising."}]},{"id":"13c995a0-0612-4487-8558-e7e9f2b976f7","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"A student says, \"I failed one test, so I always fail.\" Which cognitive distortion is shown?","back":"Overgeneralisation.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Overgeneralisation.","correct":true,"explanation":"The student uses the result of one test to form a sweeping conclusion about every test, which is characteristic of overgeneralisation."},{"text":"Catastrophising.","correct":false,"explanation":"Catastrophising predicts or exaggerates an extreme negative outcome. Extending one test failure into a claim about always failing is overgeneralisation."},{"text":"Personalisation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Personalisation means taking unwarranted personal responsibility for events. Drawing a universal conclusion from a single failed test instead shows overgeneralisation."},{"text":"Mental filtering.","correct":false,"explanation":"Mental filtering means focusing selectively on negative details while ignoring positive information. The stronger error here is generalising from one failure to all tests."}]},{"id":"72274cf3-1043-429c-a43f-974862fec21a","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"A student says, \"If this is not perfect, it is a total failure.\" Which cognitive distortion is shown?","back":"All-or-nothing thinking.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"All-or-nothing thinking.","correct":true,"explanation":"The student recognises only two extreme outcomes, perfection or total failure, without allowing for intermediate levels of success. This is all-or-nothing thinking."},{"text":"Catastrophising.","correct":false,"explanation":"Catastrophising exaggerates the severity of a predicted outcome. Dividing performance into only perfect or failed categories instead demonstrates all-or-nothing thinking."},{"text":"Overgeneralisation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Overgeneralisation creates a broad rule from limited evidence. Treating anything short of perfection as complete failure is specifically all-or-nothing thinking."},{"text":"Emotional reasoning.","correct":false,"explanation":"Emotional reasoning treats feelings as proof that something is true. Judging performance through the two extremes of perfection and failure is all-or-nothing thinking."}]},{"id":"125bab79-01cc-4993-9941-e2221e87d9ba","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"A student blames themselves for something not fully under their control. Which cognitive distortion is shown?","back":"Personalisation.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Personalisation.","correct":true,"explanation":"Personalisation involves taking excessive responsibility for an outcome, even when external circumstances or other people also contributed to what happened."},{"text":"Catastrophising.","correct":false,"explanation":"Catastrophising means expecting or exaggerating the worst possible outcome. Excessively blaming oneself for an event outside one’s full control is personalisation."},{"text":"Overgeneralisation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Overgeneralisation involves drawing a broad negative conclusion from limited evidence. Assuming undue personal responsibility for an outcome is instead personalisation."},{"text":"Black-and-white thinking.","correct":false,"explanation":"Black-and-white thinking treats situations as absolute successes or failures, with no middle ground. Unjustifiably blaming oneself for an outcome demonstrates personalisation."}]},{"id":"c0e9123b-08f5-4f1b-a266-920114d8c25b","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"In CBT, a shared explanation of how a client's thoughts, feelings, behaviours and physical symptoms maintain the problem is a [ ].","back":"In CBT, a shared explanation of how a client's thoughts, feelings, behaviours and physical symptoms maintain the problem is a formulation.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"formulation","correct":true,"explanation":"A formulation is a jointly developed account linking thoughts, emotions, behaviours and physical symptoms to explain how the client’s difficulties are maintained."},{"text":"diagnosis","correct":false,"explanation":"A diagnosis classifies a disorder according to recognised symptoms, whereas CBT uses a formulation to explain the individual processes that maintain a particular client’s problem."},{"text":"prognosis","correct":false,"explanation":"A prognosis predicts the likely course or outcome of a condition. The shared CBT explanation of factors maintaining a client’s difficulty is a formulation."},{"text":"case history","correct":false,"explanation":"A case history records relevant past information but does not necessarily explain the links maintaining the current problem. That shared explanatory model is a formulation."}]},{"id":"46ea8cd3-8413-4446-bb92-1c84e1812d18","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"In CBT, [ ] means therapist and client work together like investigators.","back":"In CBT, collaborative empiricism means therapist and client work together like investigators.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"collaborative empiricism","correct":true,"explanation":"Collaborative empiricism treats therapist and client as partners who gather and evaluate evidence together, testing the client’s beliefs rather than having the therapist simply challenge them."},{"text":"cognitive restructuring","correct":false,"explanation":"Cognitive restructuring is the broader process of identifying and changing unhelpful thinking. Working jointly as investigators is specifically called collaborative empiricism."},{"text":"guided discovery","correct":false,"explanation":"Guided discovery helps clients reach new understandings through carefully structured exploration. The partnership in which therapist and client investigate evidence together is collaborative empiricism."},{"text":"behavioural activation","correct":false,"explanation":"Behavioural activation increases engagement in rewarding or meaningful activities, particularly in depression. The investigative partnership between therapist and client is collaborative empiricism."}]},{"id":"746570b4-3ced-4f35-b449-c67d6e396ba7","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What does Socratic questioning help the client examine?","back":"The evidence for and against a belief.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The evidence for and against a belief.","correct":true,"explanation":"Socratic questioning encourages clients to evaluate the support for and challenges to a belief, helping them reach a more balanced conclusion rather than accepting it automatically."},{"text":"The childhood origin and development of a belief.","correct":false,"explanation":"CBT may explore the origins of a belief, but Socratic questioning primarily evaluates its current validity by examining the evidence for and against it."},{"text":"The emotional strength and intensity of a belief.","correct":false,"explanation":"Emotional intensity may be assessed during CBT, but Socratic questioning specifically examines the evidence supporting and contradicting a belief to test its accuracy."},{"text":"The social acceptability and popularity of a belief.","correct":false,"explanation":"The therapist does not simply determine whether a belief is acceptable. Socratic questioning helps the client assess the evidence for and against that belief."}]},{"id":"c5e31ad6-2124-4cc1-8f12-864311ab8c50","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which CBT technique schedules rewarding or meaningful activities?","back":"Behavioural activation.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Behavioural activation.","correct":true,"explanation":"Behavioural activation counters withdrawal and inactivity by planning rewarding, necessary or personally meaningful activities, often to improve mood and restore positive reinforcement."},{"text":"Graded exposure.","correct":false,"explanation":"Graded exposure involves approaching feared situations in manageable stages to reduce anxiety. Scheduling rewarding or meaningful activities is behavioural activation."},{"text":"Cognitive restructuring.","correct":false,"explanation":"Cognitive restructuring focuses on identifying, evaluating and modifying unhelpful thoughts. The CBT technique that schedules positive or meaningful activities is behavioural activation."},{"text":"Behavioural experiments.","correct":false,"explanation":"Behavioural experiments test specific beliefs or predictions through planned actions. Scheduling activities to reduce withdrawal and increase reinforcement is behavioural activation."}]},{"id":"6c6c0df2-9f82-4497-8542-21e3abf0ff94","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which CBT technique gradually faces feared situations?","back":"Graded exposure.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Graded exposure.","correct":true,"explanation":"Graded exposure places feared situations into a hierarchy and approaches them progressively, allowing anxiety to decline and feared predictions to be tested safely."},{"text":"Behavioural activation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Behavioural activation schedules rewarding or meaningful activities to reduce withdrawal, especially in depression. Gradually confronting feared situations is graded exposure."},{"text":"Flooding.","correct":false,"explanation":"Flooding involves immediate exposure to a highly feared situation rather than gradual progression through manageable stages. The gradual CBT technique is graded exposure."},{"text":"Systematic desensitisation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Systematic desensitisation pairs a fear hierarchy with relaxation and is traditionally based on counterconditioning. Gradual confrontation in CBT is described as graded exposure."}]},{"id":"37e3f2f4-da9d-4802-8108-563fd9af9f1b","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which CBT technique tests predictions in real life?","back":"Behavioural experiments.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Behavioural experiments.","correct":true,"explanation":"Behavioural experiments gather real-world evidence by asking clients to make a prediction, carry out a planned task and compare the actual result with the prediction."},{"text":"Thought records.","correct":false,"explanation":"Thought records help clients document situations, emotions and automatic thoughts, but testing a prediction through planned real-life action is a behavioural experiment."},{"text":"Socratic questioning.","correct":false,"explanation":"Socratic questioning verbally examines the logic and evidence surrounding a belief. A planned real-world test of a specific prediction is a behavioural experiment."},{"text":"Behavioural activation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Behavioural activation schedules activities to counter withdrawal and improve reinforcement. Testing whether a particular prediction comes true in real life uses behavioural experiments."}]},{"id":"e055022a-a492-4511-baeb-fe1bff1d04ca","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why can avoidance maintain anxiety in a CBT formulation?","back":"Avoidance prevents the feared belief being tested.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Avoidance prevents the feared belief being tested.","correct":true,"explanation":"Avoiding the situation provides short-term relief but removes opportunities to discover that the feared outcome is unlikely or manageable, so the belief remains unchallenged."},{"text":"Avoidance permanently removes the feared danger.","correct":false,"explanation":"Avoidance may reduce anxiety temporarily, but it does not reliably remove the underlying danger. Anxiety is maintained because the feared belief cannot be tested and disconfirmed."},{"text":"Avoidance immediately intensifies the feared response.","correct":false,"explanation":"Avoidance usually produces short-term relief rather than immediate increases in fear. Its maintaining effect comes from preventing corrective learning and tests of the feared belief."},{"text":"Avoidance repeatedly disproves the feared belief.","correct":false,"explanation":"Repeated avoidance typically strengthens rather than disproves the assumed threat because no contrary evidence is gathered. Facing the situation allows the feared belief to be tested."}]},{"id":"f528242b-37cf-4605-b557-ddc9e67e5af0","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"In REBT, what mainly causes emotional distress?","back":"Irrational beliefs about events.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Irrational beliefs about events.","correct":true,"explanation":"REBT argues that emotional distress is caused mainly by irrational beliefs about activating events, rather than by the events themselves. Changing these beliefs can therefore reduce unhealthy emotional consequences."},{"text":"The events themselves.","correct":false,"explanation":"REBT does not regard events alone as the main cause of distress. The key factor is the irrational belief a person holds about the event, which produces unhealthy consequences."},{"text":"Unconscious conflicts about events.","correct":false,"explanation":"Unconscious conflicts are associated more closely with psychodynamic explanations. REBT identifies irrational beliefs about events as the main cause of emotional distress."},{"text":"Unmet biological needs.","correct":false,"explanation":"Biological needs are not the central explanation in REBT. The approach states that irrational beliefs about activating events create emotional distress and should be challenged."}]},{"id":"d27222ad-71be-477a-b450-b60caaab4c09","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"In REBT's ABC model, A = [ ], B = beliefs, and C = [ ].","back":"In REBT's ABC model, A = activating event, B = beliefs, and C = consequences.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"In REBT's ABC model, A = activating event, B = beliefs, and C = consequences.","correct":true,"explanation":"The ABC model identifies the activating event as A, beliefs about it as B, and the emotional or behavioural consequences as C. Beliefs mediate the effect of the event."},{"text":"In REBT's ABC model, A = automatic thoughts, B = beliefs, and C = cognitions.","correct":false,"explanation":"These terms confuse REBT with wider cognitive terminology. A refers to the activating event and C refers to consequences, with beliefs explaining how the event produces them."},{"text":"In REBT's ABC model, A = antecedent behaviour, B = beliefs, and C = cognitions.","correct":false,"explanation":"The first term is not antecedent behaviour, and C is not cognitions. REBT uses activating event for A and consequences for C in its ABC sequence."},{"text":"In REBT's ABC model, A = adverse consequence, B = beliefs, and C = activating event.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the order of the model. The activating event comes first as A, while the consequence resulting from beliefs is labelled C."}]},{"id":"8996fa46-ac54-4da6-8219-6fcd0efa50fd","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"In REBT's ABCDE model, D = [ ] and E = [ ].","back":"In REBT's ABCDE model, D = disputing and E = effective new beliefs.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"In REBT's ABCDE model, D = disputing and E = effective new beliefs.","correct":true,"explanation":"D represents disputing irrational beliefs, while E represents the effective new beliefs developed through that process. These rational beliefs should lead to healthier emotional and behavioural consequences."},{"text":"In REBT's ABCDE model, D = distress and E = emotional response.","correct":false,"explanation":"These terms describe possible consequences rather than the final stages of the ABCDE model. D is disputing, and E is the development of effective new beliefs."},{"text":"In REBT's ABCDE model, D = displacement and E = exposure.","correct":false,"explanation":"Displacement and exposure are not the meanings of D and E in REBT's model. D involves disputing irrational beliefs, leading to effective new beliefs at E."},{"text":"In REBT's ABCDE model, D = defence mechanisms and E = external validation.","correct":false,"explanation":"These ideas do not describe REBT's final stages and reflect a psychodynamic or interpersonal interpretation. The model uses disputing for D and effective new beliefs for E."}]},{"id":"e0bcff79-b090-40fd-84db-9ecbd8689e21","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why does REBT focus on B rather than A?","back":"The person's belief links the event to the consequence.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The person's belief links the event to the consequence.","correct":true,"explanation":"REBT focuses on the belief because it mediates between the activating event and the emotional or behavioural consequence. Changing the belief can therefore change the consequence."},{"text":"The person's memory causes the event to be repeated.","correct":false,"explanation":"Memory is not the mediating element identified by REBT. The person's belief about the event links it to the consequence and is therefore the main target for change."},{"text":"The person's behaviour determines whether the event occurred.","correct":false,"explanation":"Behaviour does not determine whether the activating event happened. REBT focuses on the person's belief because it explains how the event becomes linked to the consequence."},{"text":"The person's emotion creates the original event.","correct":false,"explanation":"The emotional response follows the belief and event rather than creating the original event. REBT targets the belief that connects the activating event with the consequence."}]},{"id":"0bed16e3-6a0c-44d5-a2cc-25e3f1eb551d","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which REBT disputing type asks, \"Does this belief make sense?\"","back":"Logical disputing.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Logical disputing.","correct":true,"explanation":"Logical disputing examines whether a belief is sensible, consistent and logically valid. It asks whether the belief makes sense rather than whether evidence supports it or whether it is useful."},{"text":"Empirical disputing.","correct":false,"explanation":"Empirical disputing asks what evidence supports or challenges a belief. Asking whether the belief makes sense is the role of logical disputing."},{"text":"Pragmatic disputing.","correct":false,"explanation":"Pragmatic disputing considers whether a belief is useful or helpful in practice. The question of whether it makes sense is addressed by logical disputing."},{"text":"Behavioural disputing.","correct":false,"explanation":"Behavioural disputing is not one of the standard REBT disputing types. Logical disputing tests whether a belief is sensible and logically valid."}]},{"id":"9bf0081b-04af-4503-a0b2-1b11bd513f2c","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which REBT disputing type asks what evidence supports or challenges a belief?","back":"Empirical disputing.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Empirical disputing.","correct":true,"explanation":"Empirical disputing tests a belief against available evidence, asking what facts support it and what facts challenge it. This distinguishes it from logical and pragmatic disputing."},{"text":"Logical disputing.","correct":false,"explanation":"Logical disputing asks whether a belief makes sense or follows logically. Questions about supporting and challenging evidence belong to empirical disputing."},{"text":"Pragmatic disputing.","correct":false,"explanation":"Pragmatic disputing asks whether a belief is useful or helpful in practice. Evaluating evidence for and against it is the purpose of empirical disputing."},{"text":"Emotional disputing.","correct":false,"explanation":"Emotional disputing is not a standard REBT category. Evidence-based evaluation is called empirical disputing, whereas logical and pragmatic disputing assess different features."}]},{"id":"b9203fc5-f78c-448e-a2b6-1c3a67a252d2","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which REBT disputing type asks whether a belief is useful?","back":"Pragmatic disputing.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Pragmatic disputing.","correct":true,"explanation":"Pragmatic disputing assesses whether a belief is useful, helpful or effective in practice. It focuses on the consequences of holding the belief rather than its logic or evidence."},{"text":"Logical disputing.","correct":false,"explanation":"Logical disputing asks whether a belief makes sense and is logically consistent. Whether the belief is useful is assessed through pragmatic disputing."},{"text":"Empirical disputing.","correct":false,"explanation":"Empirical disputing examines evidence supporting or challenging a belief. Questions about whether the belief is useful belong to pragmatic disputing."},{"text":"Cognitive disputing.","correct":false,"explanation":"Cognitive disputing is not the standard label for this REBT question. Assessing usefulness is specifically pragmatic disputing, one of the three recognised disputing types."}]},{"id":"a0b7c895-de5a-4260-9677-a8daa0a95e6e","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What did reviews such as Butler et al. (2006) find about CBT?","back":"CBT is effective for several disorders, including anxiety and depression.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"CBT is effective for several disorders, including anxiety and depression.","correct":true,"explanation":"Butler et al. reviewed evidence showing that CBT is effective for several disorders, including anxiety and depression. This supports CBT as a useful evidence-based psychological treatment."},{"text":"CBT is ineffective for several disorders, including anxiety and depression.","correct":false,"explanation":"The review evidence does not conclude that CBT is ineffective. Butler et al. found beneficial effects across several disorders, including anxiety and depression."},{"text":"CBT is effective only for anxiety and not depression.","correct":false,"explanation":"The findings were broader than anxiety alone. CBT was supported as effective for several disorders, including both anxiety and depression, so excluding depression is incorrect."},{"text":"CBT is effective only when combined with drug treatment.","correct":false,"explanation":"The reviews did not establish that CBT works only alongside medication. They found evidence for CBT's effectiveness across several disorders, including anxiety and depression."}]},{"id":"0299d4a4-345a-48ff-a796-b358bfef7ce4","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"A randomised controlled trial strengthens therapy research by allocating participants to conditions [ ].","back":"A randomised controlled trial strengthens therapy research by allocating participants to conditions randomly.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"randomly","correct":true,"explanation":"Random allocation reduces systematic differences between conditions, helping researchers attribute differences in therapy outcomes to the treatment rather than participant characteristics."},{"text":"alternately","correct":false,"explanation":"Alternating allocation is predictable and can allow selection bias to influence group membership. The correct term is randomly, because each participant should be assigned by chance."},{"text":"voluntarily","correct":false,"explanation":"Allowing participants to choose their condition creates self-selection bias and may produce unequal groups. Participants must instead be allocated randomly to conditions."},{"text":"consecutively","correct":false,"explanation":"Assigning participants according to enrolment order is not random and may introduce systematic group differences. Random allocation is used to reduce selection bias."}]},{"id":"e27359e7-cf07-4f59-a180-7dfe3a8a654d","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What bias can affect self-report symptom scales in therapy research?","back":"Social desirability.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Social desirability.","correct":true,"explanation":"Social desirability bias occurs when participants report symptoms or improvement in ways they believe appear acceptable, rather than giving completely accurate responses."},{"text":"Observer bias.","correct":false,"explanation":"Observer bias concerns researchers’ expectations influencing their observations, rather than participants altering self-reports. Self-report symptom scales are particularly vulnerable to social desirability bias."},{"text":"Sampling bias.","correct":false,"explanation":"Sampling bias occurs when the sample is unrepresentative of the target population. The relevant bias within participants’ symptom reports is social desirability."},{"text":"Publication bias.","correct":false,"explanation":"Publication bias makes studies with significant findings more likely to be published, but it does not directly distort participants’ answers. Self-report scales can be affected by social desirability."}]},{"id":"ecda6371-95ed-497f-b743-da81b7dd2084","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"When may therapeutic confidentiality be limited?","back":"When there is serious risk of harm to the client or others.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"When there is serious risk of harm to the client or others.","correct":true,"explanation":"Confidentiality may be broken when disclosure is necessary to protect the client or another person from serious harm, although only relevant information should be shared."},{"text":"When there is minor risk of embarrassment to the client or others.","correct":false,"explanation":"Embarrassment does not normally justify breaching confidentiality. The limitation applies when there is a serious risk of harm to the client or other people."},{"text":"When there is pressure from relatives to discuss the client or others.","correct":false,"explanation":"Relatives’ requests do not automatically override a client’s confidentiality. Disclosure may be justified when there is a serious risk of harm to the client or others."},{"text":"When there is professional curiosity about the client or others.","correct":false,"explanation":"Professional interest alone cannot justify sharing confidential information. Confidentiality may be limited when the client or another person faces a serious risk of harm."}]}]}],"examCountdown":{"examDate":"2027-05-18","paperLabel":"Component 1"},"heading":"Cognitive approach: therapy","title":"Cognitive approach: therapy Flashcards","topbar":{"backHref":"/a-level/psychology/eduqas/flashcards"},"topicSidebar":"$L37"}]}],"topicId":"c3ad3731-dfd3-509c-8576-2e67d5c56dbf","walled":"$L38"}],"$L39","$L3a"]