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addiction from an ordinary repeated habit because the person continues even when the behaviour produces significant negative consequences."},{"text":"enjoyment","correct":false,"explanation":"Enjoyment can motivate repetition, but addiction is defined by continuing despite harm. The behaviour may persist even after it has stopped being pleasurable."},{"text":"approval","correct":false,"explanation":"Social approval may encourage some behaviours, but it is not part of this definition. An addictive behaviour is continued despite the harm it causes."},{"text":"boredom","correct":false,"explanation":"Boredom can trigger a behaviour but does not define addiction. The key feature is feeling driven to continue despite harmful consequences."}]},{"id":"26d3268a-06bb-42f4-a563-8f88ecfa7b3f","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"In addiction explanations, [ ] is why the person starts; [ ] is why it continues.","back":"In addiction explanations, initiation is why the person starts; maintenance is why it continues.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"In addiction explanations, initiation is why the person starts; maintenance is why it continues.","correct":true,"explanation":"Initiation concerns the processes that lead someone to begin an addictive behaviour, whereas maintenance concerns the processes that keep the behaviour going over time."},{"text":"In addiction explanations, maintenance is why the person starts; initiation is why it continues.","correct":false,"explanation":"Maintenance has been confused with the starting stage. Initiation explains why addiction begins, while maintenance explains why the established behaviour continues."},{"text":"In addiction explanations, relapse is why the person starts; maintenance is why it continues.","correct":false,"explanation":"Relapse means returning to an addictive behaviour after abstinence, not first starting it. Initiation explains the start, while maintenance explains continuation."},{"text":"In addiction explanations, initiation is why the person starts; cessation is why it continues.","correct":false,"explanation":"Cessation refers to stopping an addictive behaviour, so it cannot explain why that behaviour continues. Initiation explains starting and maintenance explains continuation."}]},{"id":"2150b7ef-d027-487c-af02-1096403d3366","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which allele did Blum et al. associate with severe alcoholism?","back":"The DRD2 A1 allele.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The DRD2 A1 allele.","correct":true,"explanation":"Blum et al. reported that the DRD2 A1 allele, associated with reduced dopamine receptor functioning, occurred more frequently among people with severe alcoholism."},{"text":"The DRD4 7-repeat allele.","correct":false,"explanation":"The DRD4 7-repeat allele has been studied in relation to novelty seeking and other behaviours, but Blum et al. specifically associated severe alcoholism with the DRD2 A1 allele."},{"text":"The MAOA-L allele.","correct":false,"explanation":"The MAOA-L allele concerns reduced monoamine oxidase activity and is commonly discussed in research on aggression. Blum et al. linked severe alcoholism to the DRD2 A1 allele."},{"text":"The 5-HTTLPR short allele.","correct":false,"explanation":"The short 5-HTTLPR allele affects serotonin transport and is often studied in relation to stress and depression. Blum et al. identified the DRD2 A1 allele."}]},{"id":"9cf66f13-8b21-4206-ba22-9a27a34fb99f","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why is saying “genes cause addiction” too simplistic?","back":"

Addiction is polygenic, with many small gene effects.
Environmental triggers still affect vulnerability.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Addiction is polygenic, with many small gene effects.
Environmental triggers still affect vulnerability.

","correct":true,"explanation":"Addiction cannot be attributed to one deterministic gene because numerous genes contribute small effects, while environmental experiences influence whether genetic vulnerability develops into addiction."},{"text":"

Addiction is monogenic, with one decisive gene effect.
Environmental triggers do not affect vulnerability.

","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the evidence: addiction is polygenic rather than controlled by one gene, and environmental triggers do influence whether a genetic vulnerability is expressed."},{"text":"

Addiction is purely learned, without any gene effects.
Family resemblance only reflects shared environments.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Although addiction can cluster in families, genes are not irrelevant. Many genes exert small effects, and environmental triggers interact with this inherited vulnerability."},{"text":"

Addiction is genetically fixed, with unavoidable gene effects.
Environmental triggers cannot alter vulnerability.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Genetic influence is probabilistic rather than completely deterministic, and environmental conditions still matter. Addiction reflects many small gene effects combined with environmental triggers."}]},{"id":"086f23d6-103d-4ae9-8323-149cd86c0b4c","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How could a less efficient dopamine reward system increase addiction risk?","back":"The person may seek strong rewards through substances or behaviours.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The person may seek strong rewards through substances or behaviours.","correct":true,"explanation":"An under-responsive dopamine system may produce insufficient reward from everyday activities, encouraging the person to pursue the unusually strong stimulation supplied by addictive substances or behaviours."},{"text":"The person may avoid all rewards from substances or behaviours.","correct":false,"explanation":"Avoiding all rewards would not compensate for an inefficient reward system. Reward deficiency theory predicts seeking strong rewards through potentially addictive substances or behaviours."},{"text":"The person may feel strong rewards from minor everyday experiences.","correct":false,"explanation":"A less efficient dopamine system is associated with reduced reward sensitivity, not excessive satisfaction from weak stimulation. The person may therefore seek strong rewards through addictive activities."},{"text":"The person may seek strong punishments through substances or behaviours.","correct":false,"explanation":"Reduced reward functioning does not imply greater sensitivity to punishment. It may instead encourage the pursuit of strong rewards through substances or behaviours to increase stimulation."}]},{"id":"a106a2dd-aeb5-4ddb-a5e5-bdbab70d59c0","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Addictive substances and behaviours can increase dopamine activity in the [ ].","back":"Addictive substances and behaviours can increase dopamine activity in the mesolimbic reward pathway.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"mesolimbic reward pathway","correct":true,"explanation":"The mesolimbic reward pathway links areas involved in motivation and reinforcement, and addictive activities can increase dopamine signalling within this pathway."},{"text":"corticospinal motor pathway","correct":false,"explanation":"The corticospinal motor pathway carries movement-related signals rather than mediating reward and reinforcement. Addictive activities increase dopamine activity in the mesolimbic reward pathway."},{"text":"spinothalamic sensory pathway","correct":false,"explanation":"The spinothalamic sensory pathway transmits pain and temperature information, not reward signals. Dopamine activity associated with addiction increases in the mesolimbic reward pathway."},{"text":"hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis","correct":false,"explanation":"The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis coordinates the hormonal stress response rather than serving as the main dopamine reward circuit. The relevant system is the mesolimbic reward pathway."}]},{"id":"aaa9601a-d06c-4ee4-b69e-5b6233dffc86","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What happens in tolerance after repeated exposure to an addictive behaviour?","back":"The same behaviour gives a weaker effect, so more is needed.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The same behaviour gives a weaker effect, so more is needed.","correct":true,"explanation":"Repeated exposure reduces responsiveness to the addictive activity, so the original amount produces a weaker effect and progressively more is required to obtain the previous effect."},{"text":"The same behaviour gives a stronger effect, so less is needed.","correct":false,"explanation":"A stronger effect from the same amount describes sensitisation rather than tolerance. With tolerance, the same behaviour has a weaker effect, so more is required."},{"text":"The same behaviour gives an unchanged effect, so no more is needed.","correct":false,"explanation":"An unchanged effect would indicate that tolerance had not developed. Tolerance means the same behaviour produces a weaker effect, requiring an increased amount."},{"text":"The same behaviour gives a weaker effect, so less is needed.","correct":false,"explanation":"Needing less because the effect weakens reverses the dose-response logic. When tolerance makes the effect weaker, the person must increase the behaviour to compensate."}]},{"id":"04559a98-b41e-4f88-9eb9-7756c68c56cc","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How do cues such as pubs or betting adverts increase relapse risk?","back":"

They were paired with past rewards.
They trigger dopamine-related craving.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

They were paired with past rewards.
They trigger dopamine-related craving.

","correct":true,"explanation":"Through classical conditioning, environmental cues become associated with an addictive reward. Encountering them can then activate dopamine-related anticipatory craving and increase the likelihood of relapse."},{"text":"

They were paired with past rewards.
They trigger dopamine-related indifference.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Repeated pairing with rewards does not make these cues trigger indifference. Classical conditioning allows them to evoke dopamine-related craving, thereby increasing relapse risk."},{"text":"

They were paired with past punishments.
They trigger dopamine-related craving.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Pubs and betting adverts become risky cues through association with rewarding addictive experiences, not punishment. These learned associations can trigger dopamine-related craving."},{"text":"

They erase memories of past rewards.
They trigger dopamine-related satiety.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Cue exposure does not automatically erase learned associations or reduce relapse risk. Cues paired with past rewards can trigger craving and prompt renewed addictive behaviour."}]},{"id":"ff6f7cb7-002b-40fc-b02a-32049d52de6e","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"In incentive sensitisation, why might someone “want” the behaviour without “liking” it?","back":"Reward-linked cues become hypersensitive and drive motivation.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Reward-linked cues become hypersensitive and drive motivation.","correct":true,"explanation":"Incentive sensitisation makes cues associated with the reward unusually salient. These cues can generate powerful motivation to repeat the behaviour even when its pleasurable effects have diminished."},{"text":"Reward-linked pleasure becomes stronger and drives motivation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Tolerance usually reduces the pleasure obtained from a behaviour rather than making pleasure itself drive motivation. The theory argues that hypersensitive reward-linked cues produce “wanting” without equivalent “liking”."},{"text":"Withdrawal-linked discomfort disappears and weakens motivation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Withdrawal can encourage continued addictive behaviour, but it does not explain the distinction between “wanting” and “liking”. Incentive sensitisation attributes this distinction to hypersensitive reward-linked cues."},{"text":"Conscious decisions become more rational and drive motivation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Incentive sensitisation does not propose that conscious decisions become more rational. It argues that reward-linked cues become hypersensitive, creating strong motivation independently of reduced enjoyment."}]},{"id":"8a4c9b52-424b-4362-8d72-9c300ac36c0e","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"The disease model views addiction as a [ ].","back":"The disease model views addiction as a chronic brain disorder.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"chronic brain disorder","correct":true,"explanation":"The disease model treats addiction as a persistent disorder involving changes to brain systems associated with reward, motivation and self-control, rather than simply a temporary failure of willpower."},{"text":"short-term behavioural choice","correct":false,"explanation":"A short-term behavioural choice implies that addiction is temporary and fully voluntary. The disease model instead describes addiction as a chronic brain disorder involving enduring neurobiological changes."},{"text":"learned social preference","correct":false,"explanation":"Calling addiction a learned social preference places its origin chiefly in social learning and choice. The disease model specifically conceptualises it as a chronic brain disorder."},{"text":"temporary emotional reaction","correct":false,"explanation":"A temporary emotional reaction would be expected to pass when circumstances change. The disease model instead views addiction as a chronic brain disorder with persistent effects."}]},{"id":"e4e4f7d5-a5b9-4ba5-a563-7b529d5f2a17","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"If addiction disrupts the prefrontal cortex, what behavioural consequence may follow?","back":"Reduced voluntary control despite knowing harms.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Reduced voluntary control despite knowing harms.","correct":true,"explanation":"The prefrontal cortex supports inhibition, planning and decision-making. Disruption can therefore weaken voluntary control, causing continued addictive behaviour even when the individual understands its harmful consequences."},{"text":"Improved voluntary control despite knowing harms.","correct":false,"explanation":"Prefrontal disruption impairs inhibitory control rather than improving it. The likely consequence is reduced voluntary control, so behaviour may continue despite awareness of its harms."},{"text":"Reduced awareness of harm despite retaining control.","correct":false,"explanation":"Prefrontal impairment does not necessarily remove awareness of consequences. Individuals may still know the harms but have reduced voluntary control over their addictive behaviour."},{"text":"Increased behavioural restraint despite craving rewards.","correct":false,"explanation":"The prefrontal cortex normally helps suppress impulses, so its disruption would not produce greater restraint. It can reduce voluntary control despite the person knowing the harms."}]},{"id":"98460053-1b80-4ac6-bd62-c8c07d6f48a9","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What is the reductionist criticism of the disease model?","back":"It overemphasises brain changes and underplays choice/social context.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It overemphasises brain changes and underplays choice/social context.","correct":true,"explanation":"The disease model is reductionist because it explains complex addictive behaviour mainly through neurobiological changes, neglecting the roles of personal agency, learning and social circumstances."},{"text":"It overemphasises social context and underplays brain changes/biology.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the reductionist criticism. The disease model is criticised for giving excessive weight to brain changes while underestimating individual choice and social context."},{"text":"It overemphasises conscious choice and underplays biological mechanisms.","correct":false,"explanation":"The model does not primarily reduce addiction to conscious decision-making. Its reductionism lies in prioritising brain changes while overlooking choice and wider social influences."},{"text":"It overemphasises inherited traits and underplays measurable brain changes.","correct":false,"explanation":"Genetic influences may feature in biological accounts, but the stated reductionist criticism concerns explaining addiction through brain changes while neglecting agency and social context."}]},{"id":"9582f48e-b849-494d-8afd-0968ddc8679e","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which cognitive bias, reviewed by Field and Cox, draws attention to addiction cues?","back":"Attentional bias.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Attentional bias.","correct":true,"explanation":"Attentional bias is the tendency for addiction-related stimuli to capture and hold attention disproportionately, making relevant cues more noticeable and potentially triggering craving."},{"text":"Confirmation bias.","correct":false,"explanation":"Confirmation bias involves favouring evidence that supports existing beliefs, not automatically directing attention towards addiction-related stimuli. Field and Cox reviewed attentional bias in addiction."},{"text":"Hindsight bias.","correct":false,"explanation":"Hindsight bias is the tendency to see an outcome as predictable after it has occurred. The selective allocation of attention to addiction cues is attentional bias."},{"text":"Self-serving bias.","correct":false,"explanation":"Self-serving bias means attributing positive outcomes internally and negative outcomes externally. The bias that makes addiction cues capture attention is attentional bias."}]},{"id":"72eecc17-20de-4a12-9743-e0d8afe361d2","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which gambling bias is believing a win is “due” after several losses?","back":"The gambler’s fallacy.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The gambler’s fallacy.","correct":true,"explanation":"The gambler’s fallacy is the mistaken belief that independent outcomes balance out in the short term, so a win seems increasingly “due” following repeated losses."},{"text":"The illusion of control.","correct":false,"explanation":"The illusion of control is an exaggerated belief that personal actions can influence chance outcomes. Believing a win is “due” after losses specifically demonstrates the gambler’s fallacy."},{"text":"The availability heuristic.","correct":false,"explanation":"The availability heuristic involves judging likelihood from how easily examples come to mind. Expecting a win because several losses have occurred is the gambler’s fallacy."},{"text":"The sunk cost fallacy.","correct":false,"explanation":"The sunk cost fallacy involves continuing because resources have already been invested. A belief that chance must produce a win after losses is the gambler’s fallacy."}]},{"id":"5eb4625f-1e64-4227-aeae-fd2f468b67d5","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why can’t correlational evidence prove cognitive biases cause addiction?","back":"Cause may run either way: addiction may create the bias.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Cause may run either way: addiction may create the bias.","correct":true,"explanation":"Correlation establishes an association but not its direction. A cognitive bias might increase vulnerability to addiction, or repeated addictive behaviour might strengthen that bias."},{"text":"Samples are always too small: findings cannot represent addiction.","correct":false,"explanation":"Correlational studies can include large, representative samples, so sample size is not their defining limitation. Causation remains uncertain because addiction may create the observed cognitive bias."},{"text":"Biases are always unmeasurable: addiction cannot be studied objectively.","correct":false,"explanation":"Cognitive biases can be measured through tasks such as the addiction Stroop test. The causal problem is directionality: addiction may produce the bias rather than result from it."},{"text":"Correlations are always too weak: biases cannot predict addiction.","correct":false,"explanation":"A strong correlation can still arise regardless of whether one variable causes the other. The key issue is that addiction may create the bias, reversing the proposed causal direction."}]},{"id":"2ec01178-b014-4693-8627-ea8150f9db9c","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"A field-dependent person relies more on the [ ] when making judgements.","back":"A field-dependent person relies more on the surrounding context when making judgements.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"surrounding context","correct":true,"explanation":"Field-dependent people rely heavily on external visual and social information when judging a situation, so their perceptions are shaped by the surrounding context."},{"text":"internal reference frame","correct":false,"explanation":"Reliance on an internal frame of reference characterises field independence, not field dependence. A field-dependent person instead bases judgements more heavily on the surrounding context."},{"text":"abstract logical rules","correct":false,"explanation":"Using abstract rules independently of a situation is more consistent with field independence. Field-dependent people rely more strongly on the surrounding context when making judgements."},{"text":"internal bodily sensations","correct":false,"explanation":"Field dependence concerns reliance on external contextual information, not primarily on physical sensations from within the body. The appropriate completion is surrounding context."}]},{"id":"90d2264a-716f-49f8-aa35-8ed5529914b2","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How can field dependence increase relapse risk?","back":"External cues such as peers, adverts or locations have stronger influence.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"External cues such as peers, adverts or locations have stronger influence.","correct":true,"explanation":"Field-dependent individuals are particularly influenced by their surroundings. Environmental cues associated with past addictive behaviour can therefore trigger cravings and increase the likelihood of relapse."},{"text":"Internal motives such as beliefs, values or goals have stronger influence.","correct":false,"explanation":"This describes greater reliance on internal states rather than field dependence. Field dependence raises relapse risk because external cues, including peers, adverts and familiar locations, exert stronger influence."},{"text":"Biological urges such as hunger, fatigue or pain have stronger influence.","correct":false,"explanation":"Confusing field dependence with biological drives overlooks its environmental focus. Relapse risk rises because external cues associated with the addiction have a particularly strong influence on behaviour."},{"text":"Rational decisions such as planning, reflection or evaluation have stronger influence.","correct":false,"explanation":"Deliberate decision-making is not the mechanism behind field dependence. The risk comes from heightened sensitivity to external cues such as peers, advertisements and addiction-linked locations."}]},{"id":"399f9aab-02cd-4492-9eaa-ea026e76bc1b","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which Lang trait makes risky, exciting behaviours more appealing?","back":"High sensation-seeking.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"High sensation-seeking.","correct":true,"explanation":"Lang proposed that high sensation-seeking creates a desire for novel, intense and risky experiences, making the excitement associated with potentially addictive behaviours especially appealing."},{"text":"High neuroticism.","correct":false,"explanation":"Neuroticism concerns emotional instability and anxiety rather than attraction to excitement. Lang identified high sensation-seeking as the trait that makes risky and stimulating behaviours more appealing."},{"text":"Low sensation-seeking.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the relevant relationship: low sensation-seekers prefer less stimulation. Lang argued that high sensation-seeking increases the attraction of novel, risky and exciting behaviours."},{"text":"High conscientiousness.","correct":false,"explanation":"Conscientiousness is associated with planning and self-discipline, not a strong appetite for risk. Lang’s relevant addictive-personality trait is high sensation-seeking."}]},{"id":"d677672a-0daf-4c46-9690-1293531adc13","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why can “addictive personality” become a circular label?","back":"Someone is labelled addictive because they are addicted.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Someone is labelled addictive because they are addicted.","correct":true,"explanation":"The reasoning uses the behaviour as evidence for a personality and then uses that personality to explain the same behaviour, producing a circular and uninformative explanation."},{"text":"Someone is labelled addictive because they have low self-esteem.","correct":false,"explanation":"Low self-esteem would be a separate proposed risk factor, so this is not circular reasoning. Circularity occurs when addiction itself is the only evidence for an addictive personality."},{"text":"Someone is labelled addictive because their parents are addicted.","correct":false,"explanation":"Parental addiction could suggest genetic or environmental vulnerability, making it an independent explanation rather than a circular label. Circularity means inferring addictiveness solely from being addicted."},{"text":"Someone is labelled addictive because they seek intense experiences.","correct":false,"explanation":"Sensation-seeking is a separately measurable personality trait, so this reasoning is not inherently circular. The circular label defines someone as addictive simply because they already show addiction."}]},{"id":"bd4c6ef0-9009-4329-9368-03bcf33ee5a3","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"[ ] means two or more disorders occurring in the same person.","back":"Co-morbidity means two or more disorders occurring in the same person.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Co-morbidity","correct":true,"explanation":"Co-morbidity is the presence of two or more disorders in the same individual, such as an addiction occurring alongside depression or an anxiety disorder."},{"text":"Incidence","correct":false,"explanation":"Incidence is the number of new cases arising in a population during a specified period. Co-morbidity means two or more disorders occurring in the same person."},{"text":"Concordance","correct":false,"explanation":"Concordance describes the extent to which two related individuals, often twins, share a characteristic or disorder. Co-morbidity refers to multiple disorders within one person."},{"text":"Prognosis","correct":false,"explanation":"Prognosis is the expected course or outcome of a disorder. The term for two or more disorders occurring in the same individual is co-morbidity."}]},{"id":"0db6f5f6-0ea2-4e31-9a62-b6658b9a4c21","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"In self-medication, substances or behaviours are used to reduce [ ].","back":"In self-medication, substances or behaviours are used to reduce distress.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"distress","correct":true,"explanation":"The self-medication explanation proposes that people use substances or behaviours to relieve psychological distress, including unpleasant emotions or symptoms associated with another mental disorder."},{"text":"pleasure","correct":false,"explanation":"Self-medication may produce pleasure, but its proposed purpose is to reduce distress rather than reduce pleasure. It focuses on coping with unpleasant psychological states."},{"text":"self-esteem","correct":false,"explanation":"Low self-esteem may contribute to vulnerability, but self-medication is not intended to reduce self-esteem. Substances or behaviours are used to lessen psychological distress."},{"text":"confidence","correct":false,"explanation":"A person might seek increased confidence through substance use, not reduced confidence. The self-medication account specifically proposes that addictive behaviour is used to reduce distress."}]},{"id":"822e5f43-1f7c-42e3-9c04-9f6878673f14","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What does shared vulnerability propose about mental illness and addiction?","back":"The same genetic, neurological or environmental risks increase both.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The same genetic, neurological or environmental risks increase both.","correct":true,"explanation":"Shared vulnerability proposes that common underlying risk factors can independently increase susceptibility to both mental illness and addiction, helping to explain their frequent co-occurrence."},{"text":"Different genetic, neurological or environmental risks increase each separately.","correct":false,"explanation":"This describes separate vulnerabilities and misses the theory’s central claim. Shared vulnerability proposes that the same underlying genetic, neurological or environmental risks increase both conditions."},{"text":"Mental illness directly and inevitably causes addiction in affected people.","correct":false,"explanation":"Shared vulnerability does not claim a simple, inevitable causal path from mental illness to addiction. It proposes that common underlying risk factors increase susceptibility to both."},{"text":"Addiction directly and inevitably causes mental illness in affected people.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the explanation into a direct causal claim. Shared vulnerability instead argues that the same genetic, neurological or environmental risks can increase both outcomes."}]},{"id":"282cc4c3-fb06-4f2f-b16f-a7f821d3cddf","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"According to social learning theory, why can peers promote initiation?","back":"Observed peer behaviour seems rewarded, so it is imitated.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Observed peer behaviour seems rewarded, so it is imitated.","correct":true,"explanation":"Social learning theory predicts vicarious reinforcement: seeing peers receive approval, pleasure or status for addictive behaviour increases observers’ motivation to imitate it."},{"text":"Observed peer behaviour seems punished, so it is imitated.","correct":false,"explanation":"Observed punishment usually discourages imitation through vicarious punishment. Peers promote initiation when their behaviour appears rewarded, making observers more likely to copy it."},{"text":"Observed peer behaviour seems rewarded, so it is avoided.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the predicted behavioural response to vicarious reinforcement. When peers appear rewarded for addictive behaviour, observers are more likely to imitate rather than avoid it."},{"text":"Observed peer behaviour seems unnoticed, so it is imitated.","correct":false,"explanation":"Simply seeing behaviour go unnoticed does not provide the vicarious reinforcement central to this explanation. Imitation becomes more likely when peers appear to receive rewards."}]},{"id":"a388b726-7b95-41c1-b289-11e028147d77","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How can media normalise addictive behaviour?","back":"Portrayals make use seem glamorous, adult or socially successful.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Portrayals make use seem glamorous, adult or socially successful.","correct":true,"explanation":"Positive media portrayals associate addictive behaviour with desirable identities and outcomes. This makes the behaviour appear socially acceptable and ordinary, encouraging normalisation."},{"text":"Portrayals make use seem dangerous, immature or socially isolating.","correct":false,"explanation":"These negative associations would be more likely to discourage use than normalise it. Normalisation occurs when portrayals make addictive behaviour seem glamorous, adult or socially successful."},{"text":"Portrayals make use seem rare, criminal or medically harmful.","correct":false,"explanation":"Emphasising rarity, criminality and harm presents addictive behaviour as abnormal and undesirable. Media normalise it by linking use with glamour, adulthood or social success."},{"text":"Portrayals make use seem boring, childish or socially rejected.","correct":false,"explanation":"These portrayals would reduce the behaviour’s appeal and social acceptability. Normalisation instead results from presenting use as glamorous, adult or associated with social success."}]},{"id":"86f7440c-ae59-464a-9b0a-30c48e54a3e5","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What did Hanewinkel et al. find exposure to smoking in films was associated with?","back":"Adolescent smoking.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Adolescent smoking.","correct":true,"explanation":"Hanewinkel et al. found that greater exposure to smoking in films was associated with adolescent smoking, supporting the view that media role models can influence young people’s addictive behaviour."},{"text":"Adolescent drinking.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses research on media portrayals of alcohol with Hanewinkel et al.’s study. Their finding specifically linked exposure to smoking in films with adolescent smoking."},{"text":"Adult smoking.","correct":false,"explanation":"This changes the age group examined in the study. Hanewinkel et al. investigated young people and found that film exposure to smoking was associated with adolescent smoking."},{"text":"Adolescent gambling.","correct":false,"explanation":"This substitutes a different addictive behaviour for the one investigated. Hanewinkel et al. found an association between seeing smoking in films and adolescent smoking, not gambling."}]}]}],"examCountdown":{"examDate":"2027-05-18","paperLabel":"Component 1"},"heading":"Addictive behaviours: explanations","title":"Addictive behaviours: explanations Flashcards","topbar":{"backHref":"/a-level/psychology/eduqas/flashcards"},"topicSidebar":"$L38"}]}],"topicId":"cc038a3e-75b1-51ca-8ad2-e3d1f80cd448","walled":"$L39"}],"$L3a","$L3b"]