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course and evaluates the significance of those connections, allowing an evidence-based, reasoned judgement to be reached."},{"text":"A synoptic review makes isolated descriptions to reach a factual summary.","correct":false,"explanation":"Isolated description and factual summary demonstrate knowledge but not synoptic thinking. A synoptic review makes links across the course and uses them to reach a reasoned judgement."},{"text":"A synoptic review makes links across the course to reach a factual summary.","correct":false,"explanation":"Making cross-course links is synoptic, but merely summarising facts does not evaluate their significance. Those links must support a reasoned judgement."},{"text":"A synoptic review makes links within one study to reach a reasoned judgement.","correct":false,"explanation":"Evaluating one study can support a judgement, but it is not sufficiently synoptic. Synoptic reviewing requires links across the course before reaching a reasoned judgement."}]},{"id":"b835e162-2af6-4d48-af04-37e3c51d2767","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"In a synoptic answer, what must be added to a connection between studies?","back":"A judgement about why the link matters.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A judgement about why the link matters.","correct":true,"explanation":"A connection becomes synoptic evaluation when its significance is explained. The answer must judge why the relationship between studies matters, rather than simply identifying a similarity or difference."},{"text":"A description of each study’s procedure.","correct":false,"explanation":"Describing procedures adds AO1 detail but does not explain the significance of the connection. A synoptic answer needs a judgement about why the link matters."},{"text":"A quotation from each study’s results.","correct":false,"explanation":"Quoting results may provide evidence, but evidence alone does not evaluate the connection. The required addition is a judgement explaining why the link matters."},{"text":"A definition of each study’s variables.","correct":false,"explanation":"Defining variables may clarify study details, but it does not develop the connection synoptically. The answer must add a judgement about why the link matters."}]},{"id":"e0ce34e5-12b1-4368-849e-4103155242aa","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which AO is being assessed when you recall a study’s aim, procedure, results or conclusions?","back":"AO1.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"AO1.","correct":true,"explanation":"AO1 assesses knowledge and understanding, including accurate recall of a study’s aim, procedure, results and conclusions."},{"text":"AO2.","correct":false,"explanation":"AO2 concerns applying psychological knowledge to unfamiliar material, not recalling study details. Recall of aims, procedures, results or conclusions is assessed through AO1."},{"text":"AO3.","correct":false,"explanation":"AO3 assesses analysis and evaluation, such as discussing methodological strengths or weaknesses. Straight recall of study details is assessed through AO1."},{"text":"AO4.","correct":false,"explanation":"A Level Psychology assessment objectives are organised around AO1, AO2 and AO3; there is no relevant AO4 here. Recall of study details is AO1."}]},{"id":"b11103a1-12d6-4b2f-a6e4-5f8f6ef29a64","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which AO is being assessed when you apply psychology to an unseen source or scenario?","back":"AO2.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"AO2.","correct":true,"explanation":"AO2 assesses the application of psychological knowledge and understanding to unfamiliar contexts, including unseen sources, examples and scenarios."},{"text":"AO1.","correct":false,"explanation":"AO1 assesses knowledge and understanding, such as recalling theories or studies. Using that knowledge to interpret an unseen source or scenario is AO2."},{"text":"AO3.","correct":false,"explanation":"AO3 involves analysis and evaluation, including judging evidence and methods. Applying psychological knowledge directly to an unfamiliar scenario is AO2."},{"text":"AO4.","correct":false,"explanation":"AO4 is not the assessment objective used for this task in A Level Psychology. Applying knowledge to an unseen source or scenario is AO2."}]},{"id":"9c6ed6d9-d31d-4cc5-bc78-04c74079a087","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which AO is being assessed when you compare strengths, weaknesses, ethics or methods?","back":"AO3.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"AO3.","correct":true,"explanation":"AO3 assesses analysis and evaluation, including comparisons and judgements about methodological strengths, weaknesses, ethical issues and research methods."},{"text":"AO1.","correct":false,"explanation":"AO1 covers knowledge and understanding, such as describing a study or method. Comparing strengths, weaknesses, ethics or methods requires analysis and evaluation, so it is AO3."},{"text":"AO2.","correct":false,"explanation":"AO2 is primarily application to unfamiliar contexts. Comparing and evaluating methodological strengths, weaknesses and ethical issues is assessed through AO3."},{"text":"AO4.","correct":false,"explanation":"AO4 is not the relevant assessment objective in A Level Psychology. Evaluation and comparison of evidence, ethics and methods are assessed through AO3."}]},{"id":"d7bedffc-4802-4822-b309-d8c990174277","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What was Sherif et al.’s main finding about conflict?","back":"Competition produced hostility; superordinate goals reduced it.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Competition produced hostility; superordinate goals reduced it.","correct":true,"explanation":"In the Robbers Cave study, intergroup competition increased prejudice and hostility. Goals requiring both groups to cooperate reduced conflict more effectively than contact alone."},{"text":"Cooperation produced hostility; separate goals reduced it.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the study’s pattern: competition, rather than cooperation, produced hostility. Superordinate goals requiring cooperation between groups reduced the conflict."},{"text":"Competition reduced hostility; superordinate goals produced it.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses both findings. Competition over valued resources increased intergroup hostility, whereas shared superordinate goals encouraged cooperation and reduced it."},{"text":"Competition produced hostility; simple contact reduced it.","correct":false,"explanation":"Competition did produce hostility, but simple contact was insufficient and sometimes created further conflict. Superordinate goals requiring joint effort were responsible for reducing hostility."}]},{"id":"75e1b90f-82cf-4533-a4de-468fab3627c2","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What did Baddeley (1966) show about memory coding?","back":"STM codes acoustically; LTM codes semantically.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"STM codes acoustically; LTM codes semantically.","correct":true,"explanation":"Baddeley found poorer short-term recall for acoustically similar words and poorer long-term recall for semantically similar words, indicating acoustic STM coding and semantic LTM coding."},{"text":"STM codes semantically; LTM codes acoustically.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses Baddeley’s findings. Confusion between acoustically similar words indicated acoustic coding in STM, while confusion between semantically similar words indicated semantic coding in LTM."},{"text":"STM codes visually; LTM codes acoustically.","correct":false,"explanation":"Visual coding can occur, but it was not Baddeley’s main conclusion. His results showed that STM mainly codes acoustically and LTM mainly codes semantically."},{"text":"STM codes semantically; LTM codes visually.","correct":false,"explanation":"This attributes the wrong dominant coding types to both stores. Baddeley’s word-list findings supported mainly acoustic coding in STM and semantic coding in LTM."}]},{"id":"eca1221d-4e84-4de1-87fd-b11346f79af7","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What did Watson and Rayner show with Little Albert?","back":"Fear can be conditioned and generalised.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Fear can be conditioned and generalised.","correct":true,"explanation":"Albert acquired fear when the white rat was paired with a frightening noise, and the response spread to similar furry objects, demonstrating conditioning and stimulus generalisation."},{"text":"Fear can be inherited and eliminated.","correct":false,"explanation":"The study did not demonstrate genetic inheritance or successful removal of fear. It showed that fear could be conditioned through association and generalised to similar stimuli."},{"text":"Fear can be observed and imitated.","correct":false,"explanation":"Observation and imitation describe social learning, but Albert did not learn by watching a model. His fear was conditioned by pairing the rat with a loud noise and then generalised."},{"text":"Fear can be forgotten and recovered.","correct":false,"explanation":"The study did not test forgetting and spontaneous recovery. It demonstrated that fear could be conditioned through association and generalised from the rat to similar objects."}]},{"id":"2146bf8d-e2b6-4032-b4ad-765e073a268b","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What did Raine et al. compare using PET scans?","back":"Brain activity in NGRI murderers and controls.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Brain activity in NGRI murderers and controls.","correct":true,"explanation":"Raine et al. used PET scans to compare glucose metabolism in the brains of murderers pleading not guilty by reason of insanity with matched controls."},{"text":"Brain activity in violent prisoners and psychiatrists.","correct":false,"explanation":"The comparison group was not psychiatrists, and the experimental group specifically comprised NGRI murderers. Raine et al. compared their brain activity with that of matched controls."},{"text":"Brain structure in depressed patients and controls.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses Raine et al. with research into depression and also mistakes activity for structure. PET scans compared brain activity in NGRI murderers and controls."},{"text":"Brain activity in obedient participants and rebels.","correct":false,"explanation":"This resembles categories used in social influence research rather than Raine et al. Their PET study compared brain activity in NGRI murderers and matched controls."}]},{"id":"2479d8b7-5555-44c4-ba68-d0e34a8eb9ff","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What did Rosenhan’s pseudo-patient study suggest about psychiatric diagnosis?","back":"Diagnostic labels can reduce validity of interpretation.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Diagnostic labels can reduce validity of interpretation.","correct":true,"explanation":"Staff interpreted ordinary behaviour through the pseudo-patients’ diagnostic labels, suggesting that labels can distort clinical judgements and reduce the validity of psychiatric interpretation."},{"text":"Diagnostic labels can increase reliability of interpretation.","correct":false,"explanation":"The study did not show that labels produced consistently accurate judgements. Instead, staff misinterpreted normal behaviour, suggesting that diagnostic labels can reduce the validity of interpretation."},{"text":"Diagnostic labels can improve objectivity of interpretation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Labelling encouraged biased rather than objective interpretation, as staff viewed ordinary actions as symptoms. Rosenhan therefore suggested that labels can reduce the validity of interpretation."},{"text":"Diagnostic labels can ensure accuracy of interpretation.","correct":false,"explanation":"The pseudo-patients were incorrectly judged to be mentally ill despite behaving normally after admission. This suggests labels can reduce, rather than ensure, interpretive validity."}]},{"id":"e5f2bce1-5698-460f-a702-e8aa68c21620","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"[ ] concerns whether findings are caused by intended variables; [ ] concerns generalisation beyond the study.","back":"Internal validity concerns whether findings are caused by intended variables; external validity concerns generalisation beyond the study.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Internal validity concerns whether findings are caused by intended variables; external validity concerns generalisation beyond the study.","correct":true,"explanation":"Internal validity concerns whether the intended variables produced the findings without confounding influences. External validity concerns whether findings generalise to other people, settings or times."},{"text":"External validity concerns whether findings are caused by intended variables; internal validity concerns generalisation beyond the study.","correct":false,"explanation":"The two concepts have been reversed. Internal validity concerns whether intended variables caused the findings, while external validity concerns generalisation beyond the original study."},{"text":"Reliability concerns whether findings are caused by intended variables; external validity concerns generalisation beyond the study.","correct":false,"explanation":"Reliability concerns consistency or replicability, not whether the intended variables caused an effect. That is internal validity, while external validity concerns generalisation."},{"text":"Internal validity concerns whether findings are caused by intended variables; test-retest reliability concerns generalisation beyond the study.","correct":false,"explanation":"Test-retest reliability concerns whether a measure produces consistent results over time, not generalisation. Generalisation beyond the study is the concern of external validity."}]},{"id":"66aae63c-b4cf-4cba-aaa7-eb5c0c10b2ff","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why does Sherif have stronger ecological validity than Baddeley?","back":"Sherif used an immersive camp setting, unlike Baddeley’s artificial word lists.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Sherif used an immersive camp setting, unlike Baddeley’s artificial word lists.","correct":true,"explanation":"Sherif studied boys interacting during a realistic summer camp, making behaviour more natural. Baddeley’s memorisation of word lists was more artificial and less representative of everyday memory."},{"text":"Sherif used an artificial camp setting, unlike Baddeley’s everyday memory tasks.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the studies’ relative realism. Sherif’s immersive summer camp generated natural social interaction, whereas Baddeley used artificial word-list tasks."},{"text":"Sherif used a standardised laboratory task, unlike Baddeley’s natural social groups.","correct":false,"explanation":"The study settings have been confused. Sherif observed natural group processes in a camp, while Baddeley used a controlled laboratory task involving word lists."},{"text":"Sherif used an online field experiment, unlike Baddeley’s realistic classroom tasks.","correct":false,"explanation":"Neither description fits the studies. Sherif’s ecological validity came from an immersive camp setting, while Baddeley’s word-list memory tasks were comparatively artificial."}]},{"id":"f35d4e9c-f0ca-480f-a8a9-093a629e515c","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What is the main methodological trade-off in Baddeley’s lab study?","back":"Stronger control, but weaker ecological validity.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Stronger control, but weaker ecological validity.","correct":true,"explanation":"Baddeley’s laboratory procedures controlled extraneous variables and supported causal conclusions, but artificial word-list tasks were unlike everyday memory and therefore had weaker ecological validity."},{"text":"Stronger ecological validity, but weaker control.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the methodological trade-off. Baddeley’s controlled laboratory setting strengthened control, but the artificial memory task reduced ecological validity."},{"text":"Stronger population validity, but weaker reliability.","correct":false,"explanation":"The central trade-off was not between population validity and reliability. Standardised laboratory procedures increased control, while artificial word lists weakened ecological validity."},{"text":"Stronger generalisability, but weaker objectivity.","correct":false,"explanation":"Laboratory control did not automatically produce greater generalisability, and the standardised task was relatively objective. Baddeley gained control at the cost of ecological validity."}]},{"id":"41cfccc8-317e-46c5-b8a6-bd774d667385","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Why is Sherif limited in population validity?","back":"The sample was boys from a narrow cultural background.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The sample was boys from a narrow cultural background.","correct":true,"explanation":"Sherif studied a restricted group of American boys with similar backgrounds, so the findings may not generalise to girls, adults or people from other cultures."},{"text":"The sample was adults from varied cultural backgrounds.","correct":false,"explanation":"Sherif’s participants were not a culturally varied adult sample. They were boys from a narrow cultural background, limiting generalisation to other populations."},{"text":"The sample was girls from several different age groups.","correct":false,"explanation":"The study did not include girls or several age groups. Its restricted sample of boys from a narrow cultural background limited population validity."},{"text":"The sample was families from a nationally representative population.","correct":false,"explanation":"Sherif did not use a nationally representative family sample. The participants were boys from a narrow cultural background, so wider population generalisation is limited."}]},{"id":"54983b60-8f1d-4da2-a3b5-870d49238f9c","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What major ethical issue applies to Watson and Rayner’s Little Albert study?","back":"It caused distress and did not remove the fear.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It caused distress and did not remove the fear.","correct":true,"explanation":"Watson and Rayner deliberately conditioned fear in Albert, causing psychological distress, and they did not subsequently extinguish the learned fear response."},{"text":"It ensured protection and successfully removed the fear.","correct":false,"explanation":"Albert was not adequately protected from psychological harm, and the conditioned fear was not removed. The major issue was distress combined with failure to decondition him."},{"text":"It involved discrimination when allocating groups.","correct":false,"explanation":"There was only one child participant, so discriminatory group allocation was not the issue. The study caused Albert distress and failed to remove his conditioned fear."},{"text":"It created financial pressure to remain in the study.","correct":false,"explanation":"There is no evidence that financial pressure prevented withdrawal. The central ethical problem was causing Albert distress and not extinguishing the fear afterwards."}]},{"id":"3f9b4b97-2b9f-4557-9326-37db266c86ca","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What major ethical issue applies to Rosenhan’s hospital study?","back":"Hospital staff were deceived.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Hospital staff were deceived.","correct":true,"explanation":"Staff were not told that the pseudo-patients were researchers presenting false symptoms, so they could not knowingly consent to taking part in the study."},{"text":"Hospital staff were physically harmed.","correct":false,"explanation":"The study did not physically injure hospital staff. The principal ethical issue was deception because staff were unknowingly observed while treating pseudo-patients."},{"text":"Hospital patients were randomly assigned treatments.","correct":false,"explanation":"Rosenhan did not experimentally assign hospital patients to treatments. The ethical concern was that staff were deceived by pseudo-patients whose symptoms were fabricated."},{"text":"Pseudo-patients were conditioned to feel fear.","correct":false,"explanation":"Fear conditioning was the procedure used in the Little Albert study, not Rosenhan’s research. Rosenhan’s major ethical issue was deceiving hospital staff."}]},{"id":"587ee512-fc73-4e55-ac1c-44ac8d039548","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What major ethical issue applies to Sherif’s Robbers Cave study?","back":"Researchers deceived children and created conflict.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Researchers deceived children and created conflict.","correct":true,"explanation":"The boys were unaware of the researchers’ true aims, and the deliberately engineered competition produced distress and hostility. This raises concerns about deception and protection from psychological harm."},{"text":"Researchers revealed children’s identities and published their names.","correct":false,"explanation":"The researchers did not publish the boys’ names, so confidentiality was not the central ethical problem. They deceived children and deliberately created intergroup conflict, risking psychological harm."},{"text":"Researchers deceived adult volunteers and withheld payment.","correct":false,"explanation":"The participants were boys rather than adults, making their vulnerability especially important. The major issue was that researchers deceived them and deliberately created conflict between the groups."},{"text":"Researchers gave children shocks and caused physical injuries.","correct":false,"explanation":"Electric shocks were used in other psychological research, not at Robbers Cave. Sherif’s study instead involved deceiving children and engineering hostility between competing groups."}]},{"id":"2fe4a063-fa70-4e5a-9901-4319d7e4a7c6","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Raine et al. supports a [ ] explanation of offending because it focuses on [ ].","back":"Raine et al. supports a nature explanation of offending because it focuses on brain differences.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Raine et al. supports a nature explanation of offending because it focuses on brain differences.","correct":true,"explanation":"Raine et al. linked violent offending with differences in brain functioning measured using PET scans. This biological emphasis supports nature rather than an environmental explanation."},{"text":"Raine et al. supports a nurture explanation of offending because it focuses on brain differences.","correct":false,"explanation":"Brain differences are biological characteristics, so they support nature rather than nurture. Raine et al. used PET scans to investigate differences in brain activity associated with violent offending."},{"text":"Raine et al. supports a nature explanation of offending because it focuses on social learning.","correct":false,"explanation":"Social learning is an environmental explanation and was not the focus of Raine et al. The study supports nature because it investigated brain differences using PET scans."},{"text":"Raine et al. supports a nurture explanation of offending because it focuses on reinforcement histories.","correct":false,"explanation":"Reinforcement histories would support a nurture account based on environmental learning. Raine et al. instead supports nature by focusing on biological differences in offenders’ brains."}]},{"id":"592a3424-5a0a-43f0-b9f7-877b38e798ee","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Watson and Rayner supports [ ] because fear was learned through [ ].","back":"Watson and Rayner supports nurture because fear was learned through conditioning.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Watson and Rayner supports nurture because fear was learned through conditioning.","correct":true,"explanation":"Little Albert acquired fear after the rat was repeatedly paired with a frightening noise. Learning through classical conditioning therefore supports a nurture explanation of fear."},{"text":"Watson and Rayner supports nature because fear was learned through conditioning.","correct":false,"explanation":"Conditioning is learning produced through environmental experience, so it supports nurture rather than nature. Little Albert’s fear developed after repeated pairings of the rat and loud noise."},{"text":"Watson and Rayner supports nurture because fear was learned through biological maturation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Biological maturation was not manipulated or observed as the cause of fear. Watson and Rayner demonstrated nurture by producing a learned fear through classical conditioning."},{"text":"Watson and Rayner supports nature because fear was learned through inherited reflexes.","correct":false,"explanation":"The fear of the rat was not treated as an inherited reflex. It was acquired through classical conditioning, making the study evidence for nurture rather than nature."}]},{"id":"5ecdc25c-4393-43ff-9e62-ea5741af2a2c","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why can Raine et al. be criticised as reductionist?","back":"It explains complex violence through brain activity.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It explains complex violence through brain activity.","correct":true,"explanation":"Raine et al. reduces complex violent behaviour to patterns of brain functioning. This may overlook interacting social, cognitive and situational influences on offending."},{"text":"It explains complex violence through childhood reinforcement.","correct":false,"explanation":"Childhood reinforcement is a behavioural explanation, not the biological factor isolated by Raine et al. The study is reductionist because it explains complex violence primarily through brain activity."},{"text":"It explains complex violence through unconscious conflict.","correct":false,"explanation":"Unconscious conflict belongs to the psychodynamic approach and was not measured by PET scans. Raine et al. is reductionist because it focuses on brain activity as an explanation of violence."},{"text":"It explains complex violence through group competition.","correct":false,"explanation":"Group competition was central to Sherif’s research, not Raine et al. Raine’s explanation can be called reductionist because it reduces complex violence to brain activity."}]},{"id":"6d99e86b-2d21-4eb7-8078-c6c5ff12db7d","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Why does Sherif support a nurture explanation of hostility?","back":"Hostility changed when the social environment changed.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Hostility changed when the social environment changed.","correct":true,"explanation":"The boys’ hostility was produced by competition and reduced through shared superordinate goals. Its dependence on social conditions supports nurture and environmental influence."},{"text":"Hostility changed when the genetic inheritance changed.","correct":false,"explanation":"The boys’ genetic makeup remained constant throughout the study, so it cannot explain changing hostility. Their behaviour changed when competition and cooperation altered the social environment."},{"text":"Hostility changed when the brain structure changed.","correct":false,"explanation":"Sherif did not manipulate or measure changes in brain structure. Hostility rose during competition and fell during cooperation, showing the influence of the social environment."},{"text":"Hostility changed when the hormone levels changed.","correct":false,"explanation":"Hormone levels were not manipulated or measured in the Robbers Cave study. Hostility varied as the social environment shifted between competition and shared goals."}]},{"id":"f91012e8-6c5f-4d4c-9e4e-68623ab491f7","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What does Tajfel’s minimal group work add to Sherif’s findings?","back":"In-group bias can occur without realistic competition.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"In-group bias can occur without realistic competition.","correct":true,"explanation":"Tajfel found favouritism after participants were assigned to arbitrary groups with no meaningful rivalry. Mere categorisation can therefore produce bias without realistic competition over resources."},{"text":"In-group bias can occur without group categorisation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Minimal group experiments depend on categorising people into groups, even when those categories are arbitrary. Tajfel showed that bias can arise without realistic competition, not without categorisation."},{"text":"In-group bias can occur only after long-term interaction.","correct":false,"explanation":"Participants showed favouritism despite having no prolonged relationships with fellow group members. Tajfel therefore demonstrated that in-group bias can occur without realistic competition or long-term interaction."},{"text":"In-group bias can occur only after open conflict.","correct":false,"explanation":"Open conflict is not required for in-group favouritism. Tajfel’s participants allocated rewards preferentially after minimal categorisation, showing bias without realistic competition."}]},{"id":"ac01fb8e-fae7-4149-a86a-d6e0414d1c24","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What does Bartlett add to Baddeley’s memory findings?","back":"Memory can be reconstructive and schema-influenced.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Memory can be reconstructive and schema-influenced.","correct":true,"explanation":"Bartlett found that recall was altered to fit participants’ existing schemas, as unfamiliar details were omitted or transformed. Memory is therefore an active reconstruction rather than an exact copy."},{"text":"Memory can be photographic and context-independent.","correct":false,"explanation":"Bartlett’s participants did not reproduce the story like a photograph; their recall became shorter and more conventional. This shows that memory can be reconstructive and schema-influenced."},{"text":"Memory can be verbatim and schema-free.","correct":false,"explanation":"Recall was not a word-for-word copy, and schemas affected how unfamiliar material was remembered. Bartlett therefore showed that memory can be reconstructive and schema-influenced."},{"text":"Memory can be unlimited and interference-resistant.","correct":false,"explanation":"Bartlett did not demonstrate unlimited capacity or resistance to interference. His findings showed that recall is reconstructed using schemas, which can distort remembered material."}]},{"id":"573f6f9d-1ab3-44b1-9363-5ba7ea192b38","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which descriptive statistic is best for ordinal or skewed data?","back":"The median.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The median.","correct":true,"explanation":"The median uses the middle ranked score, so it is appropriate for ordinal data. It is also resistant to extreme values that distort skewed distributions."},{"text":"The mean.","correct":false,"explanation":"The mean requires interval or ratio data and is strongly affected by extreme scores. The median is more suitable for ordinal data or a skewed distribution."},{"text":"The mode.","correct":false,"explanation":"The mode can be used with ordinal data, but it identifies only the most frequent score and may be unrepresentative. The median is generally preferred for ordinal or skewed data."},{"text":"The range.","correct":false,"explanation":"The range measures dispersion rather than central tendency and is highly affected by extreme scores. The median provides an appropriate central value for ordinal or skewed data."}]},{"id":"ee6528e7-296e-4e00-a67a-b0c5f4aba174","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which graph is best for continuous data grouped into intervals?","back":"A histogram.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A histogram.","correct":true,"explanation":"Histograms display continuous data grouped into class intervals. Their adjacent bars reflect the continuous scale, with each bar representing the frequency within an interval."},{"text":"A bar chart.","correct":false,"explanation":"Bar charts display discrete or categorical data, so their bars are separated. A histogram is appropriate because the data are continuous and grouped into intervals."},{"text":"A scattergram.","correct":false,"explanation":"Scattergrams show the relationship between two co-variables rather than frequencies across intervals. A histogram displays continuous data grouped into class intervals."},{"text":"A line graph.","correct":false,"explanation":"Line graphs usually show change across an ordered variable such as time. A histogram is used to display frequencies for continuous data grouped into intervals."}]},{"id":"ac6a30d1-2dc5-4241-9bed-ad5ed76da6a7","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which inferential test fits independent groups and a test of difference?","back":"Mann-Whitney U.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Mann-Whitney U.","correct":true,"explanation":"Mann-Whitney U tests whether two independent groups differ significantly when the data are ordinal or do not meet the assumptions of a parametric test."},{"text":"Wilcoxon signed-ranks.","correct":false,"explanation":"Wilcoxon signed-ranks tests differences between related or matched scores, not independent groups. Mann-Whitney U is the appropriate test of difference for independent groups."},{"text":"Spearman’s rho.","correct":false,"explanation":"Spearman’s rho tests for a correlation between ranked or ordinal co-variables rather than a difference between groups. Independent groups require Mann-Whitney U."},{"text":"Chi-square.","correct":false,"explanation":"Chi-square tests an association between nominal categories rather than a difference between two independent sets of ordinal scores. Mann-Whitney U fits this design."}]},{"id":"5472bad9-a038-4d00-bce1-253db9f9873f","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which inferential test fits related data and a test of difference?","back":"Wilcoxon signed-ranks.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Wilcoxon signed-ranks.","correct":true,"explanation":"Wilcoxon signed-ranks tests for a significant difference between two related sets of scores, such as repeated-measures or matched-pairs data."},{"text":"Mann-Whitney U.","correct":false,"explanation":"Mann-Whitney U is tempting because it also tests a difference, but it requires independent groups. Related scores are analysed using Wilcoxon signed-ranks."},{"text":"Spearman’s rho.","correct":false,"explanation":"Spearman’s rho tests the strength and direction of a correlation, not a difference between related conditions. Wilcoxon signed-ranks is appropriate for related data."},{"text":"Chi-square.","correct":false,"explanation":"Chi-square examines an association between nominal categories and does not compare related ordinal scores. Wilcoxon signed-ranks is the suitable test of difference."}]},{"id":"4de4a6c5-7681-4fe4-8dc7-744292c5d665","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which inferential test fits correlation between ranked or ordinal variables?","back":"Spearman’s rho.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Spearman’s rho.","correct":true,"explanation":"Spearman’s rho measures the strength and direction of a correlation when the paired variables provide ranked or ordinal data."},{"text":"Mann-Whitney U.","correct":false,"explanation":"Mann-Whitney U tests for a difference between independent groups rather than a correlation. Spearman’s rho is used for correlation between ranked or ordinal variables."},{"text":"Wilcoxon signed-ranks.","correct":false,"explanation":"Wilcoxon signed-ranks compares two related sets of scores rather than measuring a correlation. Spearman’s rho is appropriate for paired ranked or ordinal variables."},{"text":"Chi-square.","correct":false,"explanation":"Chi-square tests association using frequency data in nominal categories, not correlation between ordinal scores. Spearman’s rho is the appropriate ranked-correlation test."}]},{"id":"9bd98e0a-60f0-40a3-9586-2f2596ef4429","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which inferential test fits association between nominal categories?","back":"Chi-square.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Chi-square.","correct":true,"explanation":"Chi-square compares observed and expected frequencies to determine whether there is a significant association between two variables measured using nominal categories."},{"text":"Mann-Whitney U.","correct":false,"explanation":"Mann-Whitney U compares independent groups using ranked data rather than testing categorical frequencies. Chi-square tests association between variables measured in nominal categories."},{"text":"Wilcoxon signed-ranks.","correct":false,"explanation":"Wilcoxon signed-ranks tests differences between related ordinal scores, not associations between nominal categories. Chi-square is used with categorical frequency data."},{"text":"Spearman’s rho.","correct":false,"explanation":"Spearman’s rho measures correlation between ranked or ordinal variables, whereas nominal category frequencies require Chi-square to test for an association."}]},{"id":"f570eb04-7c39-4055-b92a-0ed4e084eafe","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Use a [ ] for a directional hypothesis and a [ ] for a non-directional hypothesis.","back":"Use a one-tailed test for a directional hypothesis and a two-tailed test for a non-directional hypothesis.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Use a one-tailed test for a directional hypothesis and a two-tailed test for a non-directional hypothesis.","correct":true,"explanation":"A directional hypothesis predicts the direction of an effect or relationship, so one tail is tested. A non-directional hypothesis predicts no direction, requiring both tails."},{"text":"Use a two-tailed test for a directional hypothesis and a one-tailed test for a non-directional hypothesis.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the decision rule. A directional prediction uses a one-tailed test, while a non-directional prediction allows effects in either direction and uses a two-tailed test."},{"text":"Use a one-tailed test for a directional hypothesis and a one-tailed test for a non-directional hypothesis.","correct":false,"explanation":"The first choice is correct, but a non-directional hypothesis does not specify a direction. It therefore requires a two-tailed test rather than a one-tailed test."},{"text":"Use a two-tailed test for a directional hypothesis and a two-tailed test for a non-directional hypothesis.","correct":false,"explanation":"The second choice is correct, but a directional hypothesis specifies which direction to test. It therefore uses a one-tailed test rather than a two-tailed test."}]},{"id":"bee61bdf-8048-4d55-823b-3af1c67d91fe","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"For Mann-Whitney U and Wilcoxon, the observed value is usually significant if it is [ ] the critical value.","back":"For Mann-Whitney U and Wilcoxon, the observed value is usually significant if it is equal to or less than the critical value.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"equal to or less than","correct":true,"explanation":"For Mann-Whitney U and Wilcoxon, smaller observed test statistics provide stronger evidence against the null hypothesis. Significance is reached when the observed value equals or falls below the critical value."},{"text":"equal to or greater than","correct":false,"explanation":"This applies the comparison in the wrong direction. For Mann-Whitney U and Wilcoxon, the observed value is significant when it is equal to or less than the critical value."},{"text":"strictly less than","correct":false,"explanation":"This wrongly excludes equality with the critical value. An observed Mann-Whitney U or Wilcoxon value is significant when it is equal to or less than the critical value."},{"text":"strictly greater than","correct":false,"explanation":"This both reverses the comparison and excludes equality. For Mann-Whitney U and Wilcoxon, significance occurs when the observed value is equal to or less than the critical value."}]},{"id":"dfd719db-092d-4866-bdfd-35ef67537c81","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"A Type I error is a [ ]; a Type II error is a [ ].","back":"A Type I error is a false positive; a Type II error is a false negative.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A Type I error is a false positive; a Type II error is a false negative.","correct":true,"explanation":"A Type I error rejects a true null hypothesis, falsely identifying a significant effect. A Type II error retains a false null hypothesis, missing a real effect."},{"text":"A Type I error is a false negative; a Type II error is a false positive.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the two error types. Type I is a false positive caused by rejecting a true null hypothesis, while Type II is a false negative."},{"text":"A Type I error is a true positive; a Type II error is a false negative.","correct":false,"explanation":"The Type II definition is correct, but a Type I error is not a correct detection. It is a false positive produced by rejecting a true null hypothesis."},{"text":"A Type I error is a false positive; a Type II error is a true negative.","correct":false,"explanation":"The Type I definition is correct, but a Type II error is not a correct rejection. It is a false negative caused by failing to detect a real effect."}]}]}],"examCountdown":{"examDate":"2027-05-18","paperLabel":"Paper 1"},"heading":"Synoptic review of studies","title":"Synoptic review of studies Flashcards","topbar":{"backHref":"/a-level/psychology/edexcel/flashcards"},"topicSidebar":"$L37"}]}],"topicId":"adb94fad-fba9-5363-8445-9d22fa8abe8b","walled":"$L38"}],"$L39","$L3a"]