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formulation is idiographic, so it seeks to explain why this particular individual offended under their specific personal and situational circumstances."},{"text":"the average offender","correct":false,"explanation":"Focusing on an average offender is nomothetic and may overlook important individual differences. Formulation asks why this person offended in this particular way and context."},{"text":"the offence category","correct":false,"explanation":"An offence category cannot itself offend and only describes the type of crime. Formulation focuses on why this person committed the offence under those circumstances."},{"text":"the wider population","correct":false,"explanation":"Population-level patterns are useful for general theories, but psychological formulation is individualised. It asks why this person offended at that time and in that context."}]},{"id":"32d92230-73a6-48a4-adc4-bd41da1cb95b","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What practical purpose does identifying the function of offending serve?","back":"It helps plan treatment and risk management.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It helps plan treatment and risk management.","correct":true,"explanation":"Understanding what offending achieves for the individual helps practitioners select appropriate treatment targets and manage circumstances that could increase the risk of reoffending."},{"text":"It helps plan punishment and sentencing.","correct":false,"explanation":"Punishment and sentencing are primarily legal decisions, not the central purpose of functional analysis. Identifying the function helps plan treatment and risk management."},{"text":"It helps plan diagnosis and classification.","correct":false,"explanation":"Diagnosis and classification may describe psychological difficulties, but they do not directly address why offending occurs. Its function is identified to guide treatment and risk management."},{"text":"It helps plan conviction and imprisonment.","correct":false,"explanation":"Conviction and imprisonment are outcomes of the criminal justice process rather than formulation goals. Understanding the function of offending supports treatment and risk management."}]},{"id":"abc83423-ded4-4f4f-944e-c8ae7af2c0d2","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Formulation aims to [ ] offending, not [ ] it.","back":"Formulation aims to explain offending, not excuse it.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Formulation aims to explain offending, not excuse it.","correct":true,"explanation":"Formulation identifies the psychological and situational processes contributing to offending, but this understanding does not remove the offender’s responsibility or justify the behaviour."},{"text":"Formulation aims to describe offending, not condemn it.","correct":false,"explanation":"Merely describing events does not provide a psychological account of their causes and function. Formulation aims to explain offending without excusing it."},{"text":"Formulation aims to predict offending, not justify it.","correct":false,"explanation":"Prediction may contribute to risk assessment, but it is not the central contrast here. Formulation aims to explain offending while making clear that explanation is not excuse."},{"text":"Formulation aims to explain offending, not punish it.","correct":false,"explanation":"Formulation is not a method of punishment, but that is not the intended distinction. It aims to explain offending without excusing or absolving the behaviour."}]},{"id":"57a33d92-40a9-4ad1-840a-f15307545f16","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"The function of offending is what the behaviour [ ], such as reducing anxiety or gaining status.","back":"The function of offending is what the behaviour does for the individual, such as reducing anxiety or gaining status.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"does for the individual","correct":true,"explanation":"The function is the purpose or benefit the behaviour serves for that person, such as relieving distress, gaining approval or achieving status."},{"text":"reveals about the offence","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses the behaviour’s function with information inferred from the crime. Function means what the offending does for the individual, such as reducing anxiety."},{"text":"costs wider society","correct":false,"explanation":"Social costs are consequences of offending, not its psychological function for the offender. Function concerns what the behaviour does for the individual."},{"text":"looks like to observers","correct":false,"explanation":"Outward appearance describes the form of behaviour rather than its function. The function is what offending does for the individual, such as providing status."}]},{"id":"685ae25b-29c1-4694-9585-c54d2b8c35b6","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why is the understanding-the-offender stage idiographic?","back":"It focuses on the individual person, not general averages.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It focuses on the individual person, not general averages.","correct":true,"explanation":"An idiographic approach examines the offender’s unique experiences, thoughts and circumstances rather than relying only on patterns calculated across groups."},{"text":"It focuses on the average offender, not individual differences.","correct":false,"explanation":"Studying average offenders and minimising individual differences is nomothetic rather than idiographic. This stage focuses on the individual person, not general averages."},{"text":"It focuses on the offence category, not personal circumstances.","correct":false,"explanation":"Classifying the offence does not explain the offender’s unique pathway or circumstances. The stage is idiographic because it focuses on the individual person."},{"text":"It focuses on the general population, not a single offender.","correct":false,"explanation":"Researching the general population seeks broad patterns and is nomothetic. Understanding the offender is idiographic because it concentrates on the individual person."}]},{"id":"dfc09e77-a817-46db-ae68-8b07953cc894","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What do protective factors do to offending risk?","back":"They reduce the likelihood of offending or reoffending.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They reduce the likelihood of offending or reoffending.","correct":true,"explanation":"Protective factors, such as supportive relationships or stable employment, buffer against risk factors and make future offending or reoffending less likely."},{"text":"They increase the likelihood of offending or reoffending.","correct":false,"explanation":"Increasing the likelihood of offending is the role of risk factors, not protective factors. Protective factors reduce the chance of offending or reoffending."},{"text":"They maintain the likelihood of offending or reoffending.","correct":false,"explanation":"Protective factors do not simply keep risk unchanged; they provide strengths or resources that lower it. They reduce the likelihood of offending or reoffending."},{"text":"They measure the likelihood of offending or reoffending.","correct":false,"explanation":"Risk assessment tools measure or estimate likelihood, whereas protective factors influence it. Protective factors reduce the likelihood of offending or reoffending."}]},{"id":"f22090b2-06b3-4853-9936-85483c0865dd","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What does offence analysis reconstruct?","back":"What happened before, during and after the offence.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"What happened before, during and after the offence.","correct":true,"explanation":"Offence analysis reconstructs the complete sequence, including antecedents, the offending behaviour itself and its immediate or later consequences."},{"text":"What happened during and immediately after the offence.","correct":false,"explanation":"This omits antecedents, which may reveal triggers and vulnerabilities leading to the offence. Analysis reconstructs what happened before, during and after it."},{"text":"What happened before and during the offence.","correct":false,"explanation":"This leaves out consequences, which can help explain why behaviour is reinforced or repeated. Analysis covers what happened before, during and after the offence."},{"text":"What happened long before the offence.","correct":false,"explanation":"Distant background factors may inform formulation, but offence analysis reconstructs the immediate sequence. It examines what happened before, during and after the offence."}]},{"id":"ef9cc18c-738a-4b71-90fa-c346b3d15842","cardType":"basic","points":3,"front":"In the ABC model of offence analysis, what do A, B and C stand for?","back":"

Antecedents - what came before.
Behaviour - what the person did.
Consequences - what happened afterwards.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Antecedents - what came before.
Behaviour - what the person did.
Consequences - what happened afterwards.

","correct":true,"explanation":"The ABC model traces triggers or circumstances preceding the offence, the behaviour itself, and the outcomes following it, helping reveal the behaviour’s function."},{"text":"

Attitudes - what the person believed.
Behaviour - what the person did.
Choices - what the person decided.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Attitudes and choices may be relevant to formulation, but they are not the ABC components. ABC means antecedents, behaviour and consequences."},{"text":"

Antecedents - what happened afterwards.
Behaviour - what the person felt.
Consequences - what came before.

","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses antecedents and consequences and confuses behaviour with emotion. Antecedents come before, behaviour is what the person did, and consequences follow."},{"text":"

Activators - what caused the offence.
Beliefs - what the person thought.
Conduct - what the person did.

","correct":false,"explanation":"This resembles cognitive models that link activating events, beliefs and consequences, but offence analysis uses antecedents, behaviour and consequences as its ABC sequence."}]},{"id":"3b2f5871-e755-442e-97eb-aa4b837ee22d","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why are consequences especially important in offence analysis?","back":"They may reveal the offence's function.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They may reveal the offence's function.","correct":true,"explanation":"Consequences can show what the offending achieves for the individual, such as gaining approval, obtaining rewards or escaping unpleasant feelings. This helps identify the behaviour's function."},{"text":"They may reveal the offence's severity.","correct":false,"explanation":"Severity concerns the seriousness or harm of an offence, not what maintains it. Consequences are especially useful because they may reveal the offence's function."},{"text":"They may reveal the offence's legality.","correct":false,"explanation":"Whether behaviour is illegal is established by law, not by analysing its consequences. Consequences may instead reveal the offence's function for the individual."},{"text":"They may reveal the offence's frequency.","correct":false,"explanation":"Frequency is established by counting how often offending occurs, rather than examining what follows it. Consequences may reveal the offence's function and why it continues."}]},{"id":"d625f23c-d2f8-40de-bd80-2b88821e4ff9","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"[ ] adds something rewarding; [ ] removes something unpleasant.","back":"Positive reinforcement adds something rewarding; negative reinforcement removes something unpleasant.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Positive reinforcement adds something rewarding; negative reinforcement removes something unpleasant.","correct":true,"explanation":"Positive reinforcement increases behaviour by adding a rewarding consequence, whereas negative reinforcement increases behaviour by removing or avoiding an unpleasant consequence."},{"text":"Negative reinforcement adds something rewarding; positive reinforcement removes something unpleasant.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the two reinforcement processes. Positive reinforcement adds something rewarding, while negative reinforcement removes or helps someone avoid something unpleasant."},{"text":"Positive punishment adds something rewarding; negative punishment removes something unpleasant.","correct":false,"explanation":"Punishment is intended to reduce behaviour, and these descriptions do not define it. Positive reinforcement adds something rewarding; negative reinforcement removes something unpleasant."},{"text":"Negative punishment adds something rewarding; positive punishment removes something unpleasant.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses both reinforcement with punishment and positive with negative. Positive reinforcement adds a reward, whereas negative reinforcement removes an unpleasant stimulus."}]},{"id":"81220a86-2b2f-442f-a559-9ed341bbc840","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"A case formulation explains why offending developed, why it happened then, and what [ ].","back":"A case formulation explains why offending developed, why it happened then, and what keeps the risk going.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"keeps the risk going","correct":true,"explanation":"A formulation identifies perpetuating factors that maintain the current risk of offending, alongside factors explaining how the offending developed and why it occurred at that time."},{"text":"guarantees the next offence","correct":false,"explanation":"A formulation is a testable hypothesis and cannot guarantee future offending. It explains what keeps the risk going by identifying factors that maintain offending."},{"text":"proves the offender's guilt","correct":false,"explanation":"Establishing legal guilt is not the purpose of psychological formulation. A formulation explains the development, timing and maintenance of offending, including what keeps the risk going."},{"text":"determines the legal sentence","correct":false,"explanation":"Sentencing is a judicial decision rather than the explanatory purpose of formulation. A case formulation identifies what keeps the risk going and may guide risk management."}]},{"id":"3cf76d76-9560-4b84-b4d6-2f109bc2f772","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"In the 5 Ps, repeated burglary as the current offence pattern is what?","back":"The presenting problem.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The presenting problem.","correct":true,"explanation":"The presenting problem describes the current difficulty or behaviour requiring assessment. Here, the repeated pattern of burglary is the current offending problem being formulated."},{"text":"The predisposing factor.","correct":false,"explanation":"Predisposing factors are earlier vulnerabilities that made offending more likely to develop. Repeated burglary as the current offence pattern is the presenting problem."},{"text":"The precipitating factor.","correct":false,"explanation":"A precipitating factor is a recent trigger that helps explain why offending occurred at a particular time. The current pattern itself is the presenting problem."},{"text":"The perpetuating factor.","correct":false,"explanation":"Perpetuating factors maintain offending after it has begun, such as rewards or peer approval. Repeated burglary as the current pattern is the presenting problem."}]},{"id":"45c3a742-489f-4585-9cb2-345bda18ff24","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"In the 5 Ps, early exposure to criminal peers is which type of factor?","back":"A predisposing factor.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A predisposing factor.","correct":true,"explanation":"Predisposing factors are earlier experiences or vulnerabilities that increase later susceptibility to offending. Early exposure to criminal peers can shape attitudes and behavioural norms."},{"text":"A precipitating factor.","correct":false,"explanation":"A precipitating factor is a more immediate trigger for a particular offence or escalation. Early exposure to criminal peers is a predisposing factor because it creates longer-term vulnerability."},{"text":"A perpetuating factor.","correct":false,"explanation":"Perpetuating factors explain what currently maintains offending. Early exposure is primarily a predisposing factor because it occurred earlier and increased vulnerability to later criminal behaviour."},{"text":"A protective factor.","correct":false,"explanation":"Protective factors reduce offending risk or support desistance. Exposure to criminal peers increases vulnerability, so in this example it is a predisposing factor."}]},{"id":"3f8fadaf-bc53-4eac-adb6-7e9510e444d4","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"In the 5 Ps, job loss just before recent offences is which type of factor?","back":"A precipitating factor.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A precipitating factor.","correct":true,"explanation":"A precipitating factor is a recent event or trigger that helps explain why offending occurred when it did. Job loss immediately before the offences fits this role."},{"text":"A predisposing factor.","correct":false,"explanation":"Predisposing factors are longer-term vulnerabilities that existed before the immediate lead-up to offending. A job loss just before recent offences is a precipitating factor."},{"text":"A perpetuating factor.","correct":false,"explanation":"Perpetuating factors explain why offending continues once established. Job loss occurring just before the recent offences is identified here as their precipitating trigger."},{"text":"A protective factor.","correct":false,"explanation":"Protective factors reduce risk or support non-offending behaviour. A job loss immediately preceding offences may increase stress or financial pressure, making it a precipitating factor."}]},{"id":"e2a5d926-5f63-46ad-83d8-d928e86f5549","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"In the 5 Ps, peer approval that maintains burglary is which type of factor?","back":"A perpetuating factor.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A perpetuating factor.","correct":true,"explanation":"Perpetuating factors maintain offending over time. Peer approval rewards burglary socially, making repetition more likely through positive reinforcement and continued group acceptance."},{"text":"A predisposing factor.","correct":false,"explanation":"Predisposing factors create earlier vulnerability to offending. Because the peer approval currently rewards and maintains burglary, it functions as a perpetuating factor."},{"text":"A precipitating factor.","correct":false,"explanation":"A precipitating factor triggers offending at a particular time. Ongoing peer approval that maintains repeated burglary is instead a perpetuating factor."},{"text":"A protective factor.","correct":false,"explanation":"Protective factors reduce risk and encourage desistance. Peer approval for burglary reinforces offending and keeps it going, so it is a perpetuating factor."}]},{"id":"cc12c2b1-c704-4172-9f1e-cc498954cae2","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How should a formulation respond if new evidence appears?","back":"It should be revised because it is a hypothesis.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It should be revised because it is a hypothesis.","correct":true,"explanation":"A formulation is a provisional, testable explanation rather than a fixed conclusion. New evidence should therefore be used to revise it and improve its accuracy."},{"text":"It should be retained because it is a diagnosis.","correct":false,"explanation":"This treats formulation as a fixed diagnostic conclusion. A formulation is a hypothesis, so it should be revised when new evidence challenges or extends it."},{"text":"It should be discarded because it is a mistake.","correct":false,"explanation":"New evidence does not automatically make the entire formulation mistaken. Because it is a hypothesis, the formulation should be revised to incorporate the evidence."},{"text":"It should be ignored because it is a prediction.","correct":false,"explanation":"Ignoring new evidence would prevent the formulation becoming more accurate. It is a hypothesis that should be revised as further reliable information becomes available."}]},{"id":"96dab137-8a77-4614-b05b-576b35dfefea","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"If offending functions to gain money for drugs, what should intervention focus on?","back":"Focus on substance misuse treatment and practical support.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Focus on substance misuse treatment and practical support.","correct":true,"explanation":"Treating the drug dependency addresses the motivation for obtaining money, while practical support can reduce financial or social pressures that help maintain the offending."},{"text":"Focus on anger management treatment and emotional regulation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Anger management addresses offending driven by hostility or poor emotional control. Here, the function is obtaining money for drugs, so substance misuse treatment and practical support are required."},{"text":"Focus on victim awareness training and restorative justice.","correct":false,"explanation":"Victim awareness may address limited empathy, but it does not directly tackle drug-motivated financial offending. Substance misuse treatment and practical support target the identified function."},{"text":"Focus on increased surveillance and stricter punishment.","correct":false,"explanation":"Surveillance and punishment may restrict opportunities temporarily, but they do not address why the person needs money for drugs. Treatment and practical support target the underlying function."}]},{"id":"dcd7401a-cff9-41fe-af57-d72aea295c6f","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What should intervention target in the Risk-Need-Responsivity model?","back":"Criminogenic needs - changeable factors linked to offending risk.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Criminogenic needs - changeable factors linked to offending risk.","correct":true,"explanation":"The Need principle states that intervention should target dynamic, changeable factors directly associated with offending, such as substance misuse, antisocial attitudes or criminal peers."},{"text":"Static risk factors - fixed features linked to offending history.","correct":false,"explanation":"Static factors can help estimate risk but cannot be changed through intervention. The model targets criminogenic needs because these dynamic factors can be modified to reduce offending."},{"text":"Non-criminogenic needs - personal issues unrelated to offending risk.","correct":false,"explanation":"Improving general wellbeing may be valuable, but non-criminogenic needs do not directly predict offending. The model prioritises changeable criminogenic needs linked to future risk."},{"text":"Offence categories - legal labels assigned to criminal behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"Legal offence labels describe what occurred but do not identify changeable causes of offending. Intervention should target criminogenic needs that maintain or increase the person’s risk."}]},{"id":"1ecc35c0-44ca-419a-8614-a2de1c509249","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why is formulation more useful than simply labelling someone by offence type?","back":"It identifies the offender's personal function, not just the crime category.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It identifies the offender's personal function, not just the crime category.","correct":true,"explanation":"Formulation explains what offending achieves for the individual and which factors maintain it. People committing the same offence may therefore need different, personally targeted interventions."},{"text":"It identifies the offender's legal responsibility, not just the crime category.","correct":false,"explanation":"Determining legal responsibility is primarily a matter for courts, not the main purpose of psychological formulation. Formulation identifies the personal function that offending serves."},{"text":"It identifies the offender's offence severity, not just the crime category.","correct":false,"explanation":"Severity describes how serious an offence is but does not explain why that individual offended. Formulation is useful because it identifies the behaviour’s personal function."},{"text":"It identifies the offender's criminal sentence, not just the crime category.","correct":false,"explanation":"Sentencing is a legal decision based on several considerations, rather than a psychological explanation. Formulation instead identifies the personal function served by the offending."}]},{"id":"b2c5fb63-8643-4497-8789-38c5b9685431","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Subjectivity can reduce [ ] because psychologists may interpret the same case differently.","back":"Subjectivity can reduce reliability because psychologists may interpret the same case differently.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"reliability","correct":true,"explanation":"Reliability concerns consistency between assessments or assessors. If psychologists interpret identical case information differently, the resulting formulations may not be reliably reproduced."},{"text":"validity","correct":false,"explanation":"Validity concerns whether a formulation accurately explains the offending, whereas disagreement between psychologists concerns consistency. The missing term is reliability because interpretations may not be reproducible."},{"text":"generalisability","correct":false,"explanation":"Generalisability concerns whether findings apply across people or settings. Different psychologists reaching different interpretations of the same case specifically reduces reliability."},{"text":"objectivity","correct":false,"explanation":"Subjectivity does reduce objectivity, but the sentence focuses on inconsistent interpretations between psychologists. That lack of agreement specifically indicates reduced reliability."}]},{"id":"5cf88747-040a-4379-9fe3-68beb4a96f19","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why can minimising, blaming victims or misleading professionals reduce validity?","back":"The formulation may not explain the true function of offending.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The formulation may not explain the true function of offending.","correct":true,"explanation":"Validity depends on whether the formulation accurately represents why offending occurs. Distorted or incomplete information can conceal the genuine purpose the behaviour serves for the offender."},{"text":"The formulation may not predict the legal sentence for offending.","correct":false,"explanation":"Predicting a sentence is not the purpose of psychological formulation. Minimisation or deception threatens validity because the formulation may fail to identify the true function of offending."},{"text":"The formulation may not establish the offence category of offending.","correct":false,"explanation":"The offence category is usually established from legal and behavioural evidence. Misleading accounts instead reduce validity by obscuring the true function that the offending serves."},{"text":"The formulation may not confirm the victim’s identity in offending.","correct":false,"explanation":"Confirming a victim’s identity is an investigative issue rather than the purpose of formulation. Dishonesty can make the formulation inaccurate about the true function of offending."}]},{"id":"cc7a955a-70e6-46d4-8ef9-80ee7c1406f2","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"When may forensic confidentiality be limited?","back":"When serious risk to others requires information sharing.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"When serious risk to others requires information sharing.","correct":true,"explanation":"Confidentiality can be overridden when disclosure is necessary to protect others from serious harm. Relevant information should then be shared appropriately with responsible professionals or authorities."},{"text":"When professional curiosity requires public disclosure.","correct":false,"explanation":"Professional curiosity does not justify revealing private information publicly. Confidentiality is limited when serious risk to others makes appropriate information sharing necessary."},{"text":"When minor rule-breaking requires family notification.","correct":false,"explanation":"Minor rule-breaking does not automatically justify breaching confidentiality or informing relatives. A limitation is warranted when serious risk to others requires appropriate information sharing."},{"text":"When routine assessment requires media reporting.","correct":false,"explanation":"Routine assessment information must not be disclosed to the media. Confidentiality may be limited only when serious risk requires proportionate sharing with appropriate people."}]},{"id":"69b2f377-063d-4b9e-8c4b-d03080d38680","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why can consent be complicated in offender assessments?","back":"Offenders may feel pressured if parole, sentencing or treatment is affected.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Offenders may feel pressured if parole, sentencing or treatment is affected.","correct":true,"explanation":"Valid consent should be voluntary. When assessment participation could influence parole, sentencing or access to treatment, offenders may feel unable to refuse freely."},{"text":"Offenders may feel confused if interviews, questionnaires or observations are used.","correct":false,"explanation":"Using several assessment methods does not itself make consent involuntary. The ethical concern is pressure when participation may affect parole, sentencing or treatment."},{"text":"Offenders may feel unqualified if psychologists, lawyers or judges are involved.","correct":false,"explanation":"Lacking professional qualifications is irrelevant to an offender’s capacity to consent. Consent is complicated because possible consequences for parole, sentencing or treatment may create pressure."},{"text":"Offenders may feel anonymous if records, reports or evidence are collected.","correct":false,"explanation":"Collecting records does not make an offender anonymous and should be covered by informed consent procedures. The central problem is pressure created by possible consequences for parole, sentencing or treatment."}]}]}],"examCountdown":{"examDate":"2027-05-18","paperLabel":"Paper 1"},"heading":"Psychological formulation of offending","title":"Psychological formulation of offending Flashcards","topbar":{"backHref":"/a-level/psychology/edexcel/flashcards"},"topicSidebar":"$L39"}]}],"topicId":"eb2f91e3-756c-5f17-86cc-faec1b51db47","walled":"$L3a"}],"$L3b","$L3c"]