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and conventional authority is characteristic of an authoritarian personality, which is associated with greater willingness to obey authority figures."},{"text":"Maya shows an Internal Locus of Control.","correct":false,"explanation":"An internal locus of control involves believing that personal choices determine outcomes, not rigidly insisting that rules must never be broken. Maya shows an authoritarian personality."},{"text":"Maya shows an Agentic State.","correct":false,"explanation":"The agentic state is a temporary condition in which someone sees themselves as acting for an authority. Maya’s rigid rule-following instead suggests an authoritarian personality."},{"text":"Maya shows an Autonomous State.","correct":false,"explanation":"An autonomous state involves accepting personal responsibility and acting according to one’s own principles. Maya’s inflexible respect for rules instead indicates an authoritarian personality."}]},{"id":"c1bccab2-15aa-42d3-a9cc-9e9cd4dbaf69","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What scale is used to measure authoritarian personality?","back":"The F-scale.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The F-scale.","correct":true,"explanation":"The F-scale was developed to measure traits associated with the authoritarian personality, including conventionalism, submission to authority and hostility towards perceived inferiors."},{"text":"The L-scale.","correct":false,"explanation":"The L-scale is commonly used to detect socially desirable or dishonest responding, rather than to measure authoritarian personality. Authoritarian traits are measured using the F-scale."},{"text":"The E-scale.","correct":false,"explanation":"The E-scale relates to extraversion in personality measurement, not authoritarianism. Adorno and colleagues used the F-scale to assess the authoritarian personality."},{"text":"The IQ scale.","correct":false,"explanation":"The IQ scale assesses cognitive ability rather than authoritarian attitudes or submission to authority. The appropriate measure of authoritarian personality is the F-scale."}]},{"id":"1bbcf90f-3693-42cc-90cc-01f27d6dd1c3","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which researcher group is linked to authoritarian personality and the F-scale?","back":"Adorno et al. (1950).","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Adorno et al. (1950).","correct":true,"explanation":"Adorno and colleagues developed the F-scale while investigating the authoritarian personality, proposing that certain personality characteristics make individuals more likely to obey authority."},{"text":"Milgram (1963).","correct":false,"explanation":"Milgram investigated obedience to authority through laboratory experiments, but he did not develop the authoritarian personality explanation or its F-scale. These are associated with Adorno et al. (1950)."},{"text":"Rotter (1966).","correct":false,"explanation":"Rotter introduced the locus of control concept rather than the authoritarian personality and F-scale. The latter are linked to Adorno et al. (1950)."},{"text":"Zimbardo et al. (1973).","correct":false,"explanation":"Zimbardo is associated with the Stanford prison study and situational explanations of behaviour, not development of the F-scale. The correct researcher group is Adorno et al. (1950)."}]},{"id":"f79a01b5-d942-4819-b560-ee2d72df954e","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"David's focus on being blamed if anything went wrong indicates an [ ].","back":"David's focus on being blamed if anything went wrong indicates an External Locus of Control.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"External Locus of Control","correct":true,"explanation":"David expects blame and outcomes to be determined by forces outside his personal control, which indicates an external locus of control."},{"text":"Internal Locus of Control","correct":false,"explanation":"An internal locus of control means believing that outcomes depend mainly on one’s own choices and actions. David’s concern about externally imposed blame indicates an external locus of control."},{"text":"Agentic State","correct":false,"explanation":"An agentic state involves surrendering personal responsibility to an authority, but the question specifically identifies David’s beliefs about control. These indicate an external locus of control."},{"text":"Authoritarian Personality","correct":false,"explanation":"An authoritarian personality involves rigid conventionalism and submission to authority, rather than beliefs about who controls outcomes. David’s attribution to external forces indicates an external locus of control."}]},{"id":"b3197161-8343-4ae3-aa39-84b1d716297c","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which researcher is linked to Locus of Control?","back":"Rotter (1966).","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Rotter (1966).","correct":true,"explanation":"Rotter introduced locus of control as a personality dimension distinguishing people who attribute outcomes to their own actions from those who attribute them to external forces."},{"text":"Adorno et al. (1950).","correct":false,"explanation":"Adorno and colleagues are associated with the authoritarian personality and F-scale, not locus of control. Locus of control was introduced by Rotter in 1966."},{"text":"Milgram (1963).","correct":false,"explanation":"Milgram studied obedience and developed agency theory, but he did not introduce locus of control. That personality concept is associated with Rotter (1966)."},{"text":"Zimbardo et al. (1973).","correct":false,"explanation":"Zimbardo investigated conformity to social roles in the Stanford prison study, rather than developing locus of control. The concept is linked to Rotter (1966)."}]},{"id":"d50bf455-6ad5-47d7-91ef-8330387768a9","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which state does David enter when he attributes control to external factors and obeys?","back":"The agentic state.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The agentic state.","correct":true,"explanation":"In the agentic state, a person sees themselves as carrying out an authority figure’s wishes and attributes responsibility for the consequences to that authority."},{"text":"The autonomous state.","correct":false,"explanation":"In the autonomous state, individuals see themselves as responsible for their own actions. David instead transfers responsibility to external authority, placing him in the agentic state."},{"text":"The moral strain state.","correct":false,"explanation":"Moral strain is the discomfort experienced when an order conflicts with personal conscience; it is not the obedient state itself. David enters the agentic state."},{"text":"The authoritarian state.","correct":false,"explanation":"An authoritarian outlook is a personality characteristic, not the temporary state proposed by agency theory. Attributing responsibility externally while obeying indicates the agentic state."}]},{"id":"8478a3d7-637a-4350-99fe-61c7c17b66b3","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"[ ] is a stable cognitive personality trait; [ ] describes temporary behavioural states.","back":"Locus of Control is a stable cognitive personality trait; Agency Theory describes temporary behavioural states.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Locus of Control is a stable cognitive personality trait; Agency Theory describes temporary behavioural states.","correct":true,"explanation":"Locus of control is a relatively enduring way of interpreting control over outcomes, whereas agency theory explains temporary shifts between autonomous and agentic behavioural states."},{"text":"Agentic State is a stable cognitive personality trait; Agency Theory describes temporary behavioural states.","correct":false,"explanation":"The agentic state is a temporary behavioural condition, not a stable cognitive personality trait. Locus of control is the stable trait, while agency theory describes temporary states."},{"text":"Locus of Control is a stable cognitive personality trait; Authoritarian Personality describes temporary behavioural states.","correct":false,"explanation":"Authoritarian personality is generally treated as an enduring personality pattern, not a theory of temporary behavioural states. Agency theory describes those states, while locus of control is the stable cognitive trait."},{"text":"Agency Theory is a stable cognitive personality trait; Locus of Control describes temporary behavioural states.","correct":false,"explanation":"The relationship has been reversed: agency theory concerns temporary autonomous and agentic states, whereas locus of control is a relatively stable cognitive personality trait."}]},{"id":"9507e856-4f71-4026-ae52-9f4924a6508a","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What situational factor is shown by the order coming from a senior security manager?","back":"High status of the authority figure.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"High status of the authority figure.","correct":true,"explanation":"The word “senior” signals that the manager occupies a high-status position. Greater perceived status makes an authority figure appear more legitimate and can increase obedience."},{"text":"Close proximity of the authority figure.","correct":false,"explanation":"Proximity concerns how physically close the authority figure is to the participant, which is not established by the manager’s seniority. The scenario demonstrates high status."},{"text":"Prestigious location of the authority figure.","correct":false,"explanation":"A prestigious location concerns the setting in which orders are given, not the authority figure’s senior rank. The reference to a senior manager indicates high status."},{"text":"Official uniform of the authority figure.","correct":false,"explanation":"Uniform can increase the visible legitimacy of authority, but the scenario mentions the manager’s senior position rather than clothing. It therefore demonstrates high status."}]},{"id":"6e7c040c-84a4-480b-97f5-e327b4506184","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What proximity factor is shown by commands over a two-way radio?","back":"Remote proximity to the authority figure.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Remote proximity to the authority figure.","correct":true,"explanation":"Receiving commands by two-way radio places the authority figure at a distance rather than in the participant’s immediate physical presence, demonstrating remote proximity."},{"text":"Close proximity to the authority figure.","correct":false,"explanation":"Close proximity requires the authority figure to be physically nearby. Commands delivered by two-way radio instead demonstrate remote proximity because the authority figure is absent."},{"text":"Remote proximity to the victim.","correct":false,"explanation":"The radio changes the participant’s distance from the person issuing commands, not from the victim. It therefore demonstrates remote proximity to the authority figure."},{"text":"Increased proximity to the authority figure.","correct":false,"explanation":"A radio does not bring the authority figure physically closer to the participant. It creates remote proximity because instructions are delivered from a distance."}]},{"id":"1829bbae-3f1f-4079-ace4-9735c3d150c0","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"When Milgram gave orders by telephone rather than face-to-face, obedience usually [ ].","back":"When Milgram gave orders by telephone rather than face-to-face, obedience usually decreased.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"decreased","correct":true,"explanation":"Telephone instructions reduced the authority figure’s physical presence and made disobedience easier. Obedience decreased substantially compared with Milgram’s face-to-face baseline condition."},{"text":"increased","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses Milgram’s finding: removing the experimenter’s immediate presence weakened pressure to obey. Obedience decreased when orders were issued by telephone."},{"text":"stabilised","correct":false,"explanation":"Obedience did not remain at a stable level across the proximity variation. Telephone orders reduced the experimenter’s direct social pressure, so obedience decreased."},{"text":"recovered","correct":false,"explanation":"This wrongly suggests obedience had previously fallen and then returned to its original level. In fact, telephone instructions caused obedience to decrease from baseline."}]},{"id":"1624cb58-d441-4b94-b7ed-ade931310a97","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What peer factor pushed Maya toward obedience despite remote instructions?","back":"David provided peer modelling of obedience.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"David provided peer modelling of obedience.","correct":true,"explanation":"By obeying himself, David demonstrated obedient behaviour for Maya to imitate. This peer modelling encouraged conformity with the authority’s instructions despite their remote delivery."},{"text":"David provided peer modelling of dissent.","correct":false,"explanation":"Modelling dissent would involve David refusing the commands and would make Maya more likely to resist. David instead modelled obedience by complying with the instructions."},{"text":"David provided social support for dissent.","correct":false,"explanation":"Social support for dissent requires another person to resist the authority, reducing the pressure to obey. David instead demonstrated peer modelling of obedience."},{"text":"David provided normative pressure for resistance.","correct":false,"explanation":"Normative pressure for resistance would arise if David demonstrated refusal and made dissent the group norm. His obedient behaviour instead provided peer modelling of obedience."}]},{"id":"821aa3a0-84fd-4945-90c2-e59381c9182c","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"In the Holocaust application, what victim-related condition made obedience more likely?","back":"Victims were remote.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Victims were remote.","correct":true,"explanation":"Many perpetrators were physically and psychologically separated from those harmed. This remoteness reduced awareness of suffering and made obedience to destructive orders more likely."},{"text":"Victims were nearby.","correct":false,"explanation":"Close proximity to victims generally makes their suffering more immediate and obedience less likely. Holocaust obedience was facilitated when victims were remote from perpetrators."},{"text":"Victims were visible.","correct":false,"explanation":"Seeing victims would increase awareness of the consequences and could encourage resistance. Obedience was more likely when victims were remote and their suffering less immediate."},{"text":"Victims were powerful.","correct":false,"explanation":"Victim power does not explain increased obedience in this application. The relevant situational condition was that victims were remote, reducing perpetrators’ direct contact with suffering."}]},{"id":"4f622dab-c2ad-4330-a869-f4f788a8939e","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What kind of evidence do Milgram's variations provide for situational explanations?","back":"Controlled, quantitative evidence.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Controlled, quantitative evidence.","correct":true,"explanation":"Milgram systematically altered situational variables and measured obedience numerically, allowing controlled comparisons between conditions and providing quantitative support for situational explanations."},{"text":"Naturalistic, qualitative evidence.","correct":false,"explanation":"Milgram’s variations were controlled laboratory studies rather than naturalistic observations, and obedience was recorded numerically. They therefore supplied controlled, quantitative evidence."},{"text":"Correlational, qualitative evidence.","correct":false,"explanation":"Milgram manipulated variables such as proximity rather than merely measuring correlations, and he recorded numerical obedience rates. His variations provided controlled, quantitative evidence."},{"text":"Uncontrolled, anecdotal evidence.","correct":false,"explanation":"The variations used standardised procedures and produced numerical obedience rates, not informal personal accounts. They therefore offered controlled, quantitative evidence for situational explanations."}]},{"id":"88c10efe-9b6c-40b7-9db6-26a5a16a3583","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why are situational explanations criticised as deterministic?","back":"They ignore free will.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They ignore free will.","correct":true,"explanation":"Situational explanations can imply that external circumstances determine behaviour, overlooking people’s capacity to choose resistance. This neglect of personal choice makes the account deterministic."},{"text":"They exaggerate free will.","correct":false,"explanation":"Exaggerating personal choice would make an explanation less deterministic, not more. Situational accounts are criticised because they ignore free will and emphasise external causes."},{"text":"They ignore social influence.","correct":false,"explanation":"Situational explanations specifically focus on social and environmental influences, so they do not ignore them. The deterministic criticism is that they ignore individual free will."},{"text":"They reject external causes.","correct":false,"explanation":"Situational explanations emphasise external causes rather than rejecting them. They are called deterministic because this emphasis can ignore people’s free will to resist."}]},{"id":"9ef6c22f-e9ca-4587-93c1-15150e126e7e","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"In Milgram's high-pressure baseline, [ ] of participants resisted and refused to obey.","back":"In Milgram's high-pressure baseline, 35% of participants resisted and refused to obey.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"35%","correct":true,"explanation":"In Milgram’s baseline study, 65% obeyed to the maximum voltage, leaving 35% who resisted by stopping before the end of the procedure."},{"text":"65%","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses the percentage who resisted with the percentage who fully obeyed. Since 65% reached the maximum voltage, the resisting proportion was 35%."},{"text":"30%","correct":false,"explanation":"This likely results from roughly estimating the minority who resisted rather than subtracting accurately. With 65% fully obedient, the remaining 35% resisted."},{"text":"40%","correct":false,"explanation":"This overestimates resistance by five percentage points, perhaps by rounding too broadly. Milgram found 65% fully obedient, so exactly 35% resisted."}]},{"id":"b0f9b6db-6e87-497f-a9f3-e3119f206a6b","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why did Milgram's lab experiments lack mundane realism?","back":"Giving electric shocks to a stranger in a lab is not everyday.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Giving electric shocks to a stranger in a lab is not everyday.","correct":true,"explanation":"The experimental task was unlike situations participants normally encountered, so the procedure lacked mundane realism even if its psychological pressures may have felt convincing."},{"text":"Giving questionnaires to a stranger in a lab is not everyday.","correct":false,"explanation":"Questionnaires are common research activities and were not Milgram’s unusual obedience task. Mundane realism was low because participants apparently gave electric shocks to a stranger."},{"text":"Giving electric shocks to a colleague at work is not everyday.","correct":false,"explanation":"This changes the setting and relationship rather than describing Milgram’s laboratory procedure. The study lacked mundane realism because it involved shocking a stranger in a lab."},{"text":"Giving verbal instructions to a stranger in a lab is not everyday.","correct":false,"explanation":"Giving instructions is not the distinctive unrealistic task that participants performed. Mundane realism was low because they apparently administered electric shocks to a stranger in a lab."}]},{"id":"de955880-e15e-43a5-9395-48ffff9eb8fc","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What gap do individual explanations fill in obedience research?","back":"They explain individual variations in obedience.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They explain individual variations in obedience.","correct":true,"explanation":"Situational explanations cannot fully account for why people respond differently in the same circumstances. Individual explanations address variations linked to personality and other personal characteristics."},{"text":"They explain situational variations in obedience.","correct":false,"explanation":"Situational variations are explained by external factors such as proximity, location and uniform. Individual explanations instead account for individual variations between people exposed to similar situations."},{"text":"They explain cross-cultural variations in obedience.","correct":false,"explanation":"Cross-cultural differences concern how obedience varies between societies and cultures. Individual explanations fill the gap by explaining individual variations between people within comparable circumstances."},{"text":"They explain historical variations in obedience.","correct":false,"explanation":"Historical variations involve changes across time and social context, rather than differences between participants. Individual explanations account for individual variations in obedience."}]},{"id":"cced92ba-7ee0-45ad-94cc-730cd51d325c","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Elms and Milgram (1966) found high obedience correlated with high scores on the [ ].","back":"Elms and Milgram (1966) found high obedience correlated with high scores on the F-scale.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"F-scale","correct":true,"explanation":"The F-scale measures authoritarian personality traits, including conventionalism and submission to authority. Elms and Milgram found that highly obedient participants tended to receive higher scores."},{"text":"L-scale","correct":false,"explanation":"The L-scale is associated with detecting socially desirable or dishonest responding, not measuring authoritarian personality. Elms and Milgram found obedience correlated with the F-scale."},{"text":"E-scale","correct":false,"explanation":"The E-scale is associated with extraversion in personality testing, not authoritarian attitudes. Elms and Milgram reported a correlation between high obedience and the F-scale."},{"text":"RWA scale","correct":false,"explanation":"The Right-Wing Authoritarianism scale is a later measure and was not the instrument used in this study. Elms and Milgram used the F-scale."}]},{"id":"b4342f70-dfb9-42fb-88fb-19352c967133","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why can't authoritarian personality be said to cause obedience from the evidence?","back":"The evidence is correlational, so causation cannot be inferred.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The evidence is correlational, so causation cannot be inferred.","correct":true,"explanation":"Authoritarianism and obedience were measured rather than manipulated under controlled conditions. A correlation shows an association, but cannot establish that authoritarian personality causes obedience."},{"text":"The evidence is experimental, so causation cannot be inferred.","correct":false,"explanation":"Controlled experiments can support causal conclusions when the independent variable is manipulated. Here, the correct limitation is that the evidence is correlational, preventing causal inference."},{"text":"The evidence is correlational, so causation can be inferred.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses association with causation. Correlational evidence cannot rule out third variables or reverse causality, so it cannot establish that authoritarian personality causes obedience."},{"text":"The evidence is longitudinal, so causation is directly established.","correct":false,"explanation":"Following participants over time does not by itself prove causation, and this evidence was not longitudinal. It was correlational, so no causal conclusion can be drawn."}]},{"id":"64a25e9a-2f4a-436b-8b6d-ded9fb02f6f2","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"The F-scale can create response bias because items are phrased in [ ], so [ ] score highly.","back":"The F-scale can create response bias because items are phrased in the same direction, so yes-men score highly.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The F-scale can create response bias because items are phrased in the same direction, so yes-men score highly.","correct":true,"explanation":"All items invite agreement with authoritarian statements, creating acquiescence bias. People who habitually agree, described as yes-men, may therefore obtain artificially high scores."},{"text":"The F-scale can create response bias because items are phrased in the opposite direction, so yes-men score highly.","correct":false,"explanation":"Reverse-worded items would reduce rather than produce systematic acquiescence scores. The items are phrased in the same direction, allowing habitual yes-men to score highly."},{"text":"The F-scale can create response bias because items are phrased in the same direction, so nay-sayers score highly.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the effect of acquiescence bias: habitual disagreement would produce lower scores. Because items point in the same direction, yes-men are likely to score highly."},{"text":"The F-scale can create response bias because items are phrased in mixed directions, so random responders score highly.","correct":false,"explanation":"Mixed item direction would help control acquiescence, while random responses would not systematically raise scores. The items use the same direction, so yes-men score highly."}]},{"id":"3c5c95e2-6479-47ad-aadc-03610acece9a","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What political bias does the F-scale have?","back":"It is biased toward the right wing.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It is biased toward the right wing.","correct":true,"explanation":"The F-scale defines authoritarianism through conservative, conventional and submissive attitudes associated with right-wing ideology, overlooking the possibility of authoritarianism on the political left."},{"text":"It is biased toward the left wing.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the recognised political bias. The scale concentrates on conservative and conventional attitudes, meaning it is biased toward the right wing."},{"text":"It is biased toward the political centre.","correct":false,"explanation":"The scale was not designed around moderate or centrist beliefs. Its authoritarian items reflect conservative values, creating a bias toward the right wing."},{"text":"It is biased toward the liberal wing.","correct":false,"explanation":"Liberal attitudes are not the main focus of the scale’s authoritarian statements. Its emphasis on convention and submission creates a bias toward the right wing."}]}]}],"examCountdown":{"examDate":"2027-05-18","paperLabel":"Paper 1"},"heading":"Factors affecting obedience and dissent","title":"Factors affecting obedience and dissent Flashcards","topbar":{"backHref":"/a-level/psychology/edexcel/flashcards"},"topicSidebar":"$L38"}]}],"topicId":"74eec3e2-0f32-5f64-a6d1-01219f38a55f","walled":"$L39"}],"$L3a","$L3b"]