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(2012) study in adolescents?","back":"Alcohol use.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Alcohol use.","correct":true,"explanation":"Mundt et al. investigated alcohol use among adolescents, focusing on how friendship formation and changes within friendship networks were associated with similarities in drinking behaviour."},{"text":"Tobacco use.","correct":false,"explanation":"Tobacco is another adolescent health-risk behaviour, but it was not the behaviour examined in this study. Mundt et al. investigated alcohol use within adolescent friendship networks."},{"text":"Illicit drug use.","correct":false,"explanation":"The study concerned legal alcohol consumption rather than illicit drugs. Mundt et al. tracked adolescents’ alcohol use alongside changes in their friendship networks."},{"text":"Unsafe sexual behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"Unsafe sexual behaviour is studied within Health Psychology, but it was not Mundt et al.’s focus. Their research examined alcohol use as an adolescent health-risk behaviour."}]},{"id":"dc02229f-8ed0-4381-8157-3cb0c7ae2311","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why is Mundt et al. (2012) classed as Health Psychology?","back":"It studies alcohol use as a health-risk behaviour.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It studies alcohol use as a health-risk behaviour.","correct":true,"explanation":"Health Psychology examines behaviours that affect health. Mundt et al. fits this field because adolescent alcohol use can cause immediate and long-term physical and psychological harm."},{"text":"It studies tobacco use as a health-risk behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"Confusing alcohol with another common health-risk behaviour changes the study’s focus. Mundt et al. is classed as Health Psychology because it investigates adolescent alcohol use."},{"text":"It studies healthy eating as a health-risk behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"Healthy eating is generally health-promoting rather than a health-risk behaviour, and it was not examined here. Mundt et al. studied the health risks associated with alcohol use."},{"text":"It studies physical exercise as a health-risk behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"Physical exercise is normally health-promoting and was not the study’s subject. Mundt et al. belongs to Health Psychology because it examines alcohol use as risky behaviour."}]},{"id":"e1187523-609e-4d1e-a363-1c82efe6d429","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"If similar drinkers become friends after already drinking similarly, what process is shown?","back":"Peer selection.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Peer selection.","correct":true,"explanation":"Peer selection occurs when adolescents choose friends who already resemble them. Because their drinking was similar before the friendship formed, the friendship did not produce that similarity."},{"text":"Peer influence.","correct":false,"explanation":"Peer influence requires a person’s drinking to change after exposure to friends’ behaviour. Pre-existing similarity instead demonstrates peer selection, as similar drinkers chose one another."},{"text":"Social facilitation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Social facilitation concerns improved performance on familiar tasks in another person’s presence. Choosing friends who already have similar drinking patterns is peer selection."},{"text":"Random allocation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Random allocation is an experimental procedure for assigning participants to conditions, not a friendship process. Existing similar drinkers becoming friends demonstrates peer selection."}]},{"id":"0f8eafd3-c732-4d7d-ac6d-7607320a10ac","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"If a low drinker drinks more after joining heavier-drinking friends, what process is shown?","back":"Peer influence.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Peer influence.","correct":true,"explanation":"Peer influence occurs when an adolescent changes their behaviour after becoming connected to particular friends. The low drinker’s increase following entry into a heavier-drinking group demonstrates this process."},{"text":"Peer selection.","correct":false,"explanation":"Peer selection would mean choosing friends whose drinking was already similar. Because the adolescent’s drinking increases after joining heavier-drinking friends, the process is peer influence."},{"text":"Social facilitation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Social facilitation describes changes in task performance caused by another person’s presence. A drinking change following friendship with heavier drinkers instead demonstrates peer influence."},{"text":"Random allocation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Random allocation assigns participants to experimental conditions and does not describe behavioural change within friendships. Increasing alcohol use after joining heavier drinkers shows peer influence."}]},{"id":"c65a44d6-ba3f-464a-93a7-8ffa1d840470","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Friendship similarity does [ ]; Mundt et al. tried to separate selection from influence.","back":"Friendship similarity does not automatically prove peer pressure; Mundt et al. tried to separate selection from influence.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"not automatically prove peer pressure","correct":true,"explanation":"Friends may be similar because they selected one another based on existing behaviour, not because one caused the other to change. Longitudinal evidence is needed to distinguish selection from influence."},{"text":"automatically prove peer pressure","correct":false,"explanation":"Treating correlation as causation overlooks peer selection: adolescents may choose friends who already drink similarly. Friendship similarity therefore does not automatically prove peer pressure."},{"text":"rule out peer selection","correct":false,"explanation":"Similarity between friends is compatible with peer selection because adolescents may form friendships based on pre-existing drinking patterns. It therefore cannot rule selection out."},{"text":"prove that influence occurred first","correct":false,"explanation":"Similarity alone provides no information about the order of friendship formation and behavioural change. It does not prove influence occurred first, which is why longitudinal tracking was required."}]},{"id":"f972f39d-282b-4c64-a1c0-b640df2b91ce","cardType":"basic","points":3,"front":"Mundt et al. aimed to explain adolescent drinking similarity by testing which processes?","back":"

Peer selection
Peer influence
Both processes together

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Peer selection
Peer influence
Both processes together

","correct":true,"explanation":"Mundt et al. tested whether drinking similarity resulted from choosing similar friends, changing behaviour in response to friends, or a combination of selection and influence."},{"text":"

Peer selection
Parental influence
Both processes together

","correct":false,"explanation":"Replacing peer influence with parental influence misidentifies the study’s social mechanism. Mundt et al. tested peer selection, peer influence, and whether both operated together."},{"text":"

Parental selection
Peer influence
Both processes together

","correct":false,"explanation":"The formation of friendships with similar drinkers was examined as peer selection, not parental selection. The study tested peer selection, peer influence, and both processes together."},{"text":"

Peer selection
Peer influence
Neither process together

","correct":false,"explanation":"The study did not assume the processes were mutually exclusive. It tested peer selection, peer influence, and the possibility that both jointly produced similarity in drinking."}]},{"id":"cfae5d22-397e-4a55-965e-5817ba3e0e28","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Mundt et al. used a [ ] to track friendships and alcohol use over time.","back":"Mundt et al. used a longitudinal social network study to track friendships and alcohol use over time.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"longitudinal social network study","correct":true,"explanation":"The researchers repeatedly measured alcohol use and friendship connections over time. This longitudinal social network design allowed them to examine changes in both behaviour and relationships."},{"text":"cross-sectional questionnaire study","correct":false,"explanation":"A cross-sectional study measures participants at one time and cannot establish which change came first. Mundt et al. used a longitudinal social network study with repeated measurements."},{"text":"controlled laboratory experiment","correct":false,"explanation":"The researchers did not manipulate friendships or alcohol consumption under controlled conditions. They used a longitudinal social network study to observe naturally occurring changes over time."},{"text":"retrospective interview study","correct":false,"explanation":"A retrospective design would rely mainly on participants reconstructing earlier events from memory. Mundt et al. instead followed friendship networks and alcohol use longitudinally over time."}]},{"id":"01afe893-84ca-4637-8637-31ea0f0c876a","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why was a longitudinal method useful in Mundt et al.?","back":"It showed whether friendship or drinking changed first.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It showed whether friendship or drinking changed first.","correct":true,"explanation":"Repeated measurements established the temporal order of changes. This helped distinguish selecting friends with similar drinking patterns from changing drinking after exposure to friends."},{"text":"It proved that friendship changes always caused heavier drinking.","correct":false,"explanation":"A longitudinal design can establish temporal order but cannot prove that friendship changes always cause heavier drinking. It showed whether friendship or drinking changed first."},{"text":"It showed whether adolescents could recall every past drinking event.","correct":false,"explanation":"Testing perfect recall was not the purpose of following participants over time. The longitudinal method helped establish whether changes in friendship or drinking occurred first."},{"text":"It proved that all friendship similarities resulted from peer pressure.","correct":false,"explanation":"This ignores peer selection and overstates what longitudinal evidence can establish. The design was useful because it showed whether friendship or drinking changed first."}]},{"id":"f2cc8168-c6af-44ff-8318-02ab5d2bf530","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"In the social network, adolescents were [ ] and friendship nominations were [ ].","back":"In the social network, adolescents were nodes and friendship nominations were ties.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"In the social network, adolescents were nodes and friendship nominations were ties.","correct":true,"explanation":"In a social network diagram, people are represented as nodes, while the relationships or connections between them are represented as ties."},{"text":"In the social network, adolescents were ties and friendship nominations were nodes.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the network terminology. Adolescents are the nodes because they are the individual actors, while friendship nominations are the ties connecting those actors."},{"text":"In the social network, adolescents were groups and friendship nominations were nodes.","correct":false,"explanation":"A group would describe a collection of adolescents, not each individual adolescent in the network. The individuals are nodes, and the friendship nominations between them are ties."},{"text":"In the social network, adolescents were edges and friendship nominations were actors.","correct":false,"explanation":"Edges are another word for links or ties, not for the adolescents themselves. In Mundt et al., adolescents are nodes or actors, and nominations form ties."}]},{"id":"e558363f-7ad2-4d37-aeb8-071d36d335b6","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"A one-sided friendship nomination is a [ ]; a mutual nomination is a [ ].","back":"A one-sided friendship nomination is a directed tie; a mutual nomination is a reciprocal tie.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A one-sided friendship nomination is a directed tie; a mutual nomination is a reciprocal tie.","correct":true,"explanation":"A one-sided nomination has a direction from one adolescent to another, so it is directed. When both nominate each other, the tie is reciprocal."},{"text":"A one-sided friendship nomination is a reciprocal tie; a mutual nomination is a directed tie.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the meanings. A one-sided nomination is directed because it goes one way, while a mutual nomination is reciprocal because both adolescents choose each other."},{"text":"A one-sided friendship nomination is a mutual tie; a mutual nomination is a directed tie.","correct":false,"explanation":"A one-sided nomination cannot be mutual, because only one person has named the other. The correct terms are directed tie for one-sided and reciprocal tie for mutual."},{"text":"A one-sided friendship nomination is a undirected tie; a mutual nomination is a reciprocal tie.","correct":false,"explanation":"Calling a one-sided nomination undirected misses the direction of who nominated whom. It is a directed tie, while a mutual nomination is correctly called a reciprocal tie."}]},{"id":"14c6ee84-31a0-4da2-9f30-dcab6107f317","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What two things did adolescents self-report in Mundt et al.?","back":"

Own alcohol use
Friendship links

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Own alcohol use
Friendship links

","correct":true,"explanation":"Mundt et al. relied on adolescents’ own reports of their drinking and their friendship nominations, allowing alcohol behaviour and social network links to be modelled together."},{"text":"

Parents’ alcohol use
Friendship links

","correct":false,"explanation":"Parents’ drinking may be relevant in other adolescent alcohol studies, but this card asks what adolescents self-reported. They reported their own alcohol use and friendship links."},{"text":"

Own alcohol use
School achievement

","correct":false,"explanation":"School achievement was not the key network variable adolescents self-reported here. The study needed own alcohol use and friendship links to analyse selection and influence."},{"text":"

Peer pressure
Friendship quality

","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses possible explanations with the measured self-report variables. Mundt et al. used reports of own alcohol use and friendship links, not general peer pressure or friendship quality."}]},{"id":"56539556-962b-4b4c-b560-69705a625e66","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What does a stochastic actor-based model analyse?","back":"How social networks and individual behaviours change over time.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"How social networks and individual behaviours change over time.","correct":true,"explanation":"A stochastic actor-based model is used to examine changes in network connections and individual behaviour across time, rather than just describing a single snapshot."},{"text":"How social networks and group averages differ at one time.","correct":false,"explanation":"This describes a cross-sectional comparison, not a stochastic actor-based model. SABM focuses on how networks and individual behaviours change over time."},{"text":"How personality traits and family backgrounds stay stable.","correct":false,"explanation":"This shifts the focus away from network change and behaviour change. SABM analyses changing social ties and individual behaviours over time."},{"text":"How experimental groups and control groups respond.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses SABM with an experimental design. Mundt et al. used SABM to model changes in social networks and alcohol behaviour over time."}]},{"id":"476812c3-8f03-4ac9-873d-632f6f8d0f09","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"In SABM, [ ] means probability-based and [ ] means each individual can change friendships or behaviour.","back":"In SABM, stochastic means probability-based and actor means each individual can change friendships or behaviour.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"In SABM, stochastic means probability-based and actor means each individual can change friendships or behaviour.","correct":true,"explanation":"Stochastic refers to probabilistic modelling, and actor means the individual adolescent is treated as someone who may change ties or behaviour over time."},{"text":"In SABM, deterministic means probability-based and actor means each individual can change friendships or behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"Deterministic means fixed or certain, which is the opposite of probability-based. The correct term is stochastic, while actor correctly refers to the individual who can change ties or behaviour."},{"text":"In SABM, stochastic means probability-based and observer means each individual can change friendships or behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"Observer suggests someone watching the process, not an individual making changes within the model. SABM uses actor because each person can change friendships or behaviour."},{"text":"In SABM, statistical means probability-based and variable means each individual can change friendships or behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"Statistical and variable sound related, but they are not the specific SABM terms. The correct terms are stochastic for probability-based and actor for the changing individual."}]},{"id":"c55cbe5f-1f55-4125-8aec-abb106ce3ae3","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What two changes did the SABM estimate at once?","back":"

Likelihood of creating, keeping or dropping friendships
Likelihood of changing alcohol use

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Likelihood of creating, keeping or dropping friendships
Likelihood of changing alcohol use

","correct":true,"explanation":"The SABM estimated network change and behaviour change together, so it could examine friendship selection and changes in adolescents’ drinking within the same model."},{"text":"

Likelihood of creating, keeping or dropping friendships
Likelihood of reporting peer pressure

","correct":false,"explanation":"Peer pressure was not the behaviour change estimated alongside network change. The model estimated friendship changes and the likelihood of changing alcohol use."},{"text":"

Likelihood of joining, leaving or changing schools
Likelihood of changing alcohol use

","correct":false,"explanation":"This mistakes network tie changes for school mobility. SABM estimated whether friendships were created, kept or dropped, and whether alcohol use changed."},{"text":"

Likelihood of creating, keeping or dropping friendships
Likelihood of changing family income

","correct":false,"explanation":"Family income was not the behavioural outcome estimated in Mundt et al. The second change was adolescents’ alcohol use, alongside changes in friendship ties."}]},{"id":"da60edb1-ee33-43b5-a82d-723ddc381fae","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why was SABM stronger than simply correlating friends’ drinking?","back":"It modelled changes over time to separate selection from influence.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It modelled changes over time to separate selection from influence.","correct":true,"explanation":"Longitudinal modelling makes it possible to see whether similar drinkers become friends through selection or whether friends become more similar through influence."},{"text":"It measured friends’ drinking at one time to prove influence.","correct":false,"explanation":"A single-time correlation cannot show whether friends influenced each other or chose similar friends. SABM was stronger because it modelled changes over time to separate selection from influence."},{"text":"It compared different schools at one time to separate selection from influence.","correct":false,"explanation":"Comparing schools cross-sectionally would not track how friendships and drinking changed. The strength of SABM was modelling changes over time to distinguish selection from influence."},{"text":"It ignored friendship changes over time to prove selection.","correct":false,"explanation":"Ignoring changing friendships would make selection harder to identify, not easier. SABM explicitly modelled changes over time to separate selection from peer influence."}]},{"id":"84a3e320-2cb4-41dc-93a1-f902064b4d12","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What was Mundt et al.’s key conclusion about adolescent drinking similarity?","back":"It was produced by both peer selection and peer influence.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It was produced by both peer selection and peer influence.","correct":true,"explanation":"Mundt et al. concluded that adolescents’ similar drinking patterns reflected both choosing friends with similar alcohol use and being influenced by friends’ drinking."},{"text":"It was produced by peer selection but not peer influence.","correct":false,"explanation":"This captures only half of the conclusion. Mundt et al. found adolescent drinking similarity was produced by both peer selection and peer influence."},{"text":"It was produced by peer influence but not peer selection.","correct":false,"explanation":"This overlooks the role of friendship choice. The study concluded that drinking similarity came from both selecting similar peers and being influenced by peers."},{"text":"It was produced by family background and school rules.","correct":false,"explanation":"Family and school factors may affect drinking, but they were not the key conclusion about similarity between friends. Mundt et al. emphasised both peer selection and peer influence."}]},{"id":"4a527ee7-fe9d-4e1c-a1ab-85be9df4c2dc","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What does Mundt et al. suggest about health-risk behaviours?","back":"They develop within social contexts, not just individual choices.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They develop within social contexts, not just individual choices.","correct":true,"explanation":"Mundt et al. emphasise that risky behaviours emerge through social relationships and environments, so teenage drinking cannot be understood solely as an isolated personal decision."},{"text":"They develop from inherited biological traits, not social influences.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reflects a biological reductionist misconception. Mundt et al. suggest that health-risk behaviours develop within social contexts, particularly through interaction with peers, rather than arising only from inherited traits."},{"text":"They develop through individual decision-making, not peer relationships.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the study’s conclusion by treating behaviour as independent of peers. Mundt et al. argue that health-risk behaviours develop within social contexts, not just through individual choices."},{"text":"They develop within classroom teaching programmes, not friendship networks.","correct":false,"explanation":"This overstates the role of formal education and overlooks peer influence. Mundt et al. suggest that health-risk behaviours develop within social contexts, including friendship networks."}]},{"id":"efd6edf4-8302-4af8-8edd-c4851b6f6dc4","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"If teenage drinking is partly shaped by peers, interventions may need to target [ ], not just [ ].","back":"If teenage drinking is partly shaped by peers, interventions may need to target friendship groups, not just individual attitudes.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"If teenage drinking is partly shaped by peers, interventions may need to target friendship groups, not just individual attitudes.","correct":true,"explanation":"Peer influence operates through social networks, so changing friendship-group norms may be more effective than focusing exclusively on each teenager’s personal beliefs about alcohol."},{"text":"If teenage drinking is partly shaped by peers, interventions may need to target genetic profiles, not just individual attitudes.","correct":false,"explanation":"Genetic profiles are not the peer-level influence identified here. If drinking is socially shaped, interventions should target friendship groups rather than focusing only on individual attitudes."},{"text":"If teenage drinking is partly shaped by peers, interventions may need to target friendship groups, not just school timetables.","correct":false,"explanation":"Replacing personal attitudes with school timetables misses the relevant contrast. Peer effects imply targeting friendship groups, rather than limiting intervention to individual attitudes."},{"text":"If teenage drinking is partly shaped by peers, interventions may need to target family genetics, not just school attendance.","correct":false,"explanation":"Neither term captures the social-network implication of the study. Interventions should address friendship groups, where peer influence occurs, as well as teenagers’ individual attitudes."}]},{"id":"c6a96232-f835-4a00-a072-35a3917ffae7","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What does $p \\le .05$ mean in psychological research?","back":"A 5% or lower chance of the result occurring by chance.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"A 5% or lower chance of the result occurring by chance.","correct":true,"explanation":"Assuming the null hypothesis is true, a result this extreme or more extreme has a probability of no more than 5%, meeting the conventional significance threshold."},{"text":"A 95% or higher chance of the result occurring by chance.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses statistical significance with confidence or certainty. At $p \\le .05$, the stated probability is 5% or lower, assuming the null hypothesis is true."},{"text":"A 50% or lower chance of the result occurring by chance.","correct":false,"explanation":"A 50% probability would provide little evidence against the null hypothesis and would not be statistically significant. The conventional threshold shown is a 5% or lower chance."},{"text":"A 0% chance of the result occurring by chance.","correct":false,"explanation":"Statistical significance does not mean that chance is impossible. The result may still occur under the null hypothesis, but its stated probability is 5% or lower."}]},{"id":"6dadac82-bc04-43b6-89ce-30518873092b","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How did the longitudinal design strengthen the study?","back":"It gave stronger evidence than a one-point cross-sectional snapshot.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It gave stronger evidence than a one-point cross-sectional snapshot.","correct":true,"explanation":"Collecting data over time allowed patterns and changes to be tracked, providing stronger temporal evidence than measuring different variables at only one point."},{"text":"It gave stronger evidence than a controlled laboratory experiment.","correct":false,"explanation":"A longitudinal design does not automatically outperform a controlled experiment for causal inference because variables are not manipulated. Its advantage was over a one-point cross-sectional snapshot."},{"text":"It gave stronger evidence through a single brief observation period.","correct":false,"explanation":"Repeated measurement is the defining strength of a longitudinal design, not reliance on one brief observation. It provided stronger evidence than a one-point cross-sectional snapshot."},{"text":"It gave stronger evidence by using different participants at every measurement.","correct":false,"explanation":"A longitudinal design follows participants over time rather than replacing them with unrelated samples. Its strength was providing better evidence than a one-point cross-sectional snapshot."}]},{"id":"b3ab8a25-8dc6-4ec8-8bab-79673c478e80","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How could self-report reduce validity in Mundt et al.?","back":"Adolescents may under-report or exaggerate drinking.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Adolescents may under-report or exaggerate drinking.","correct":true,"explanation":"Alcohol use is sensitive and may be affected by social desirability or inaccurate recall, causing adolescents to minimise or overstate their drinking and reducing measurement validity."},{"text":"Adolescents may be randomly assigned to drinking groups.","correct":false,"explanation":"Random assignment was not part of this observational study, and it is not a self-report problem. Validity may fall because adolescents under-report or exaggerate drinking."},{"text":"Adolescents may have their alcohol use biologically verified.","correct":false,"explanation":"Objective biological testing would generally reduce reliance on inaccurate self-report rather than create it. The concern is that adolescents may under-report or exaggerate drinking."},{"text":"Adolescents may interpret every question in exactly the same way.","correct":false,"explanation":"Standardised interpretation would improve consistency rather than explain reduced validity. Self-report is problematic because adolescents may under-report or exaggerate drinking through recall error or social desirability."}]},{"id":"31704a95-512f-493a-bf7f-0c6f550126a7","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why are friendship nominations an imperfect network measure?","back":"Students may forget friends or interpret friend differently.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Students may forget friends or interpret friend differently.","correct":true,"explanation":"Friendship nominations depend on participants’ memory and personal definitions of friendship, so the recorded network may omit genuine relationships or classify them inconsistently."},{"text":"Students may be randomly assigned to different friendship groups.","correct":false,"explanation":"Random assignment would describe an experiment, whereas Mundt et al. measured naturally occurring friendships. Nominations are imperfect because students may forget friends or interpret friend differently."},{"text":"Students may have every social interaction recorded automatically.","correct":false,"explanation":"Automatic objective recording would make the network measure more complete, not less. In reality, nominations rely on students who may forget friends or interpret friend differently."},{"text":"Students may have every friendship independently verified by researchers.","correct":false,"explanation":"Independent verification would potentially improve the accuracy of the network data. The actual limitation is that students may forget friends or interpret friend differently."}]},{"id":"3aed248a-3df3-49cf-9367-ec35c8364f2e","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why should causality be stated cautiously in Mundt et al.?","back":"Adolescents were not randomly assigned to friendships or drinking conditions.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Adolescents were not randomly assigned to friendships or drinking conditions.","correct":true,"explanation":"Without random assignment, pre-existing characteristics may influence both friendship formation and alcohol use, so an association between peers’ drinking cannot establish a definite causal effect."},{"text":"Adolescents were randomly assigned to friendships and drinking conditions.","correct":false,"explanation":"Random assignment would strengthen causal inference, but Mundt et al. observed naturally occurring friendships and drinking. Caution is required because adolescents were not randomly assigned."},{"text":"Adolescents were experimentally allocated to friendships and drinking conditions.","correct":false,"explanation":"Experimental manipulation could support causal conclusions, but this study did not manipulate friendship networks or alcohol use. Adolescents were not randomly assigned to either condition."},{"text":"Adolescents were fully controlled for every confounding variable in friendships and drinking conditions.","correct":false,"explanation":"Controlling every confounding variable would make causal claims more defensible, not more cautious. The study’s observational nature meant adolescents were not randomly assigned."}]},{"id":"52050e19-8475-47c9-bbf9-507c2158343b","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Which ethical issue is raised by alcohol-use data and friendship nominations?","back":"Sensitive data require careful confidentiality and anonymisation.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Sensitive data require careful confidentiality and anonymisation.","correct":true,"explanation":"Alcohol use and named friendships are sensitive personal information, so identities must be protected to prevent disclosures from causing embarrassment, stigma, or harm to participants."},{"text":"Sensitive data require careful random allocation and counterbalancing.","correct":false,"explanation":"Random allocation and counterbalancing are design procedures, not protections for sensitive personal information. Alcohol and friendship data require careful confidentiality and anonymisation."},{"text":"Sensitive data require careful reliability and standardisation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Reliability and standardisation concern methodological consistency rather than protecting participants’ identities. Sensitive alcohol-use and friendship data require careful confidentiality and anonymisation."},{"text":"Sensitive data require careful replication and generalisation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Replication and generalisation concern the strength and applicability of findings, not privacy. Sensitive personal data require careful confidentiality and anonymisation to protect participants."}]}]}],"examCountdown":{"examDate":"2027-05-18","paperLabel":"Paper 1"},"heading":"Contemporary study: Mundt et al. (2012)","title":"Contemporary study: Mundt et al. (2012) Flashcards","topbar":{"backHref":"/a-level/psychology/edexcel/flashcards"},"topicSidebar":"$L38"}]}],"topicId":"3e32fad7-9445-59fc-b2b4-ef63c8ad635f","walled":"$L39"}],"$L3a","$L3b"]