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Which aggression type is this?","back":"Reactive aggression.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Reactive aggression.","correct":true,"explanation":"Reactive aggression is an impulsive, emotionally driven response to a perceived provocation, such as immediately lashing out after being insulted."},{"text":"Proactive aggression.","correct":false,"explanation":"Proactive aggression is deliberate and goal-directed rather than an immediate response to provocation. Lashing out following an insult is reactive aggression because it is emotionally triggered."},{"text":"Relational aggression.","correct":false,"explanation":"Relational aggression aims to damage another person’s relationships or social standing. An immediate hostile response to an insult is classified as reactive aggression."},{"text":"Instrumental aggression.","correct":false,"explanation":"Instrumental aggression is planned as a means of obtaining a separate goal. An insult directly triggering an angry outburst instead indicates reactive aggression."}]},{"id":"01934b41-88bb-4dac-b072-fa03033cc79c","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"A person calmly plans violence to gain money or status. Which aggression type is this?","back":"Proactive aggression.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Proactive aggression.","correct":true,"explanation":"Proactive aggression is controlled, planned and used instrumentally to achieve a goal, such as acquiring money, power or social status."},{"text":"Reactive aggression.","correct":false,"explanation":"Reactive aggression is an impulsive emotional response to threat or provocation. Calmly planning violence for material or social gain is proactive aggression."},{"text":"Relational aggression.","correct":false,"explanation":"Relational aggression specifically harms social relationships or reputation. Planned violence intended to secure money or status is instead proactive aggression."},{"text":"Defensive aggression.","correct":false,"explanation":"Defensive aggression is intended to protect oneself from a perceived immediate threat. Violence planned to obtain money or status is proactive aggression because it serves a goal."}]},{"id":"cec12cc1-24bb-40ee-9317-e2d7a69000df","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Brain [ ] means physical organisation; brain [ ] means activity and communication.","back":"Brain structure means physical organisation; brain functioning means activity and communication.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Brain structure means physical organisation; brain functioning means activity and communication.","correct":true,"explanation":"Structure refers to the brain’s physical organisation and anatomical components, whereas functioning concerns neural activity, communication and the operation of those components."},{"text":"Brain functioning means physical organisation; brain structure means activity and communication.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the concepts: functioning concerns brain activity and communication, not physical organisation. Structure is the term for the brain’s physical organisation."},{"text":"Brain neurotransmission means physical organisation; brain functioning means activity and communication.","correct":false,"explanation":"Neurotransmission describes chemical signalling between neurons rather than the brain’s physical organisation. The correct terms are structure for physical organisation and functioning for activity and communication."},{"text":"Brain structure means physical organisation; brain localisation means activity and communication.","correct":false,"explanation":"Localisation concerns where particular processes occur, not activity and communication generally. Structure means physical organisation, while functioning means activity and communication."}]},{"id":"2bce3fca-e578-47eb-ba4d-9b169c73163e","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Aggression is better explained by [ ] than by one brain area storing aggression.","back":"Aggression is better explained by neural circuits than by one brain area storing aggression.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"neural circuits","correct":true,"explanation":"Aggression emerges from interacting neural circuits linking regions involved in emotion, threat detection and behavioural control, rather than being stored in one isolated area."},{"text":"a single aggression centre","correct":false,"explanation":"The idea of a single aggression centre oversimplifies brain organisation. Aggression is better explained by neural circuits involving communication among several interacting regions."},{"text":"one isolated neuron","correct":false,"explanation":"One neuron cannot independently produce a complex behaviour such as aggression. Neural circuits coordinate information across populations of neurons and multiple brain regions."},{"text":"cranial capacity","correct":false,"explanation":"Cranial capacity describes the space or volume within the skull and does not explain aggressive behaviour. Interacting neural circuits provide the more appropriate explanation."}]},{"id":"b9761296-a38e-42cb-8a5c-5e9ceffecaf1","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which brain area is the main control system for planning, decisions and impulse control?","back":"The prefrontal cortex.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The prefrontal cortex.","correct":true,"explanation":"The prefrontal cortex supports executive functions including planning, decision-making, evaluating consequences and inhibiting impulses, making it a major system for behavioural control."},{"text":"The amygdala.","correct":false,"explanation":"The amygdala primarily processes emotionally significant cues, including threat, fear and anger. Planning, decision-making and impulse control are chiefly associated with the prefrontal cortex."},{"text":"The hypothalamus.","correct":false,"explanation":"The hypothalamus helps regulate basic drives, hormones and autonomic responses. Higher-order planning, decisions and impulse control depend mainly on the prefrontal cortex."},{"text":"The hippocampus.","correct":false,"explanation":"The hippocampus is especially important for forming and organising memories. The prefrontal cortex is the principal area associated with planning, decisions and impulse control."}]},{"id":"6e5a1cba-926d-47bd-860c-7fac91e3e613","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"The prefrontal cortex supports [ ]: suppressing inappropriate or harmful impulses.","back":"The prefrontal cortex supports inhibition: suppressing inappropriate or harmful impulses.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"inhibition","correct":true,"explanation":"Inhibition is the executive ability to suppress responses that are inappropriate, risky or harmful, allowing behaviour to remain controlled despite aggressive impulses."},{"text":"excitation","correct":false,"explanation":"Excitation increases neural or behavioural responsiveness rather than suppressing impulses. The prefrontal process that restrains inappropriate or harmful responses is inhibition."},{"text":"activation","correct":false,"explanation":"Activation refers broadly to making a neural system more active, not specifically restraining behaviour. Suppression of harmful impulses is called inhibition."},{"text":"consolidation","correct":false,"explanation":"Consolidation is the process by which memories become stabilised over time. The prefrontal suppression of inappropriate or harmful impulses is inhibition."}]},{"id":"5874dad3-43ec-49c8-87f6-02bda2d7385a","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What is the aggression risk if the prefrontal cortex is underactive or poorly connected?","back":"Aggressive impulses are harder to inhibit.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Aggressive impulses are harder to inhibit.","correct":true,"explanation":"Reduced prefrontal activity or connectivity weakens executive control, so aggressive urges are harder to suppress before they are translated into behaviour."},{"text":"Aggressive impulses are easier to inhibit.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the relationship: underactivity weakens rather than strengthens prefrontal control. Aggressive impulses therefore become harder to inhibit."},{"text":"Aggressive impulses are less likely to occur.","correct":false,"explanation":"Poor prefrontal control does not make aggressive urges less likely by itself. It increases risk because aggressive impulses become harder to inhibit."},{"text":"Aggressive impulses are unrelated to inhibition.","correct":false,"explanation":"Inhibition is closely linked to prefrontal functioning, so it is not unrelated. Underactivity or poor connectivity makes aggressive impulses harder to inhibit."}]},{"id":"089f2416-ec41-4c7f-a615-d9f43cf3ad5d","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which brain structure detects threat and processes fear or anger cues?","back":"The amygdala.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The amygdala.","correct":true,"explanation":"The amygdala evaluates emotionally significant stimuli and is especially involved in detecting threats and processing cues associated with fear and anger."},{"text":"The hippocampus.","correct":false,"explanation":"The hippocampus is primarily involved in forming and retrieving memories, although memory can influence threat responses. Threat, fear and anger cues are chiefly processed by the amygdala."},{"text":"The hypothalamus.","correct":false,"explanation":"The hypothalamus coordinates hormonal, autonomic and basic motivational responses, but it is not the principal detector of fear and anger cues. That role belongs to the amygdala."},{"text":"The cerebellum.","correct":false,"explanation":"The cerebellum is best known for coordinating movement, balance and motor learning. The amygdala is the structure specialised for detecting threat and processing fear or anger cues."}]},{"id":"f3861d5c-bde1-4e26-a4dc-6af6dbcc79ca","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What may an overactive amygdala make a person do with threat cues?","back":"Interpret situations as more hostile.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Interpret situations as more hostile.","correct":true,"explanation":"An overactive amygdala can exaggerate the perceived significance of threat cues, creating a hostile interpretation bias that makes defensive or aggressive responses more likely."},{"text":"Interpret situations as less hostile.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the expected bias. Amygdala overactivity heightens threat perception, so ambiguous situations are interpreted as more hostile rather than less hostile."},{"text":"Interpret situations as more rewarding.","correct":false,"explanation":"Reward processing is more closely associated with brain regions such as the ventral striatum. An overactive amygdala instead makes situations appear more hostile."},{"text":"Interpret situations as less emotionally salient.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses overactivity with reduced processing. Amygdala overactivity increases the emotional significance of possible threats, causing situations to be interpreted as more hostile."}]},{"id":"1e309008-e005-4dc3-9127-85f844549103","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Cold or instrumental aggression may involve [ ], rather than over-arousal.","back":"Cold or instrumental aggression may involve reduced emotional responsiveness, rather than over-arousal.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"reduced emotional responsiveness","correct":true,"explanation":"Instrumental aggression is calculated and goal-directed rather than emotionally explosive, so it may reflect diminished emotional reactions to another person’s distress or suffering."},{"text":"heightened emotional responsiveness","correct":false,"explanation":"This describes emotionally driven or reactive aggression rather than cold, instrumental aggression. The required explanation is reduced emotional responsiveness, which permits calculated harm without strong emotional arousal."},{"text":"increased empathic concern","correct":false,"explanation":"Greater empathy would generally inhibit deliberate harm by increasing concern for the victim. Cold aggression may instead involve reduced emotional responsiveness to distress cues."},{"text":"heightened physiological arousal","correct":false,"explanation":"Strong physiological activation is characteristic of hot, reactive aggression. Cold or instrumental aggression may instead involve reduced emotional responsiveness and little emotional over-arousal."}]},{"id":"7e688a13-ff45-48e3-9c8c-9c1174d63856","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which brain area prepares bodily arousal for fight-or-flight?","back":"The hypothalamus.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The hypothalamus.","correct":true,"explanation":"The hypothalamus coordinates autonomic and hormonal changes involved in fight-or-flight, preparing the body for action after a possible threat has been detected."},{"text":"The prefrontal cortex.","correct":false,"explanation":"The prefrontal cortex evaluates context, consequences and behavioural control rather than primarily preparing fight-or-flight arousal. The hypothalamus coordinates the relevant bodily changes."},{"text":"The cerebellum.","correct":false,"explanation":"The cerebellum mainly coordinates movement, posture and balance. Fight-or-flight arousal is prepared through the hypothalamus and its influence on autonomic and hormonal systems."},{"text":"The amygdala.","correct":false,"explanation":"The amygdala helps detect and interpret emotional threats, but the hypothalamus prepares the bodily arousal needed for a fight-or-flight response."}]},{"id":"a43d8951-84ce-4a29-a7ef-d25dd0d9d634","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Aggression becomes more likely when threat/arousal areas are [ ] and control areas are [ ].","back":"Aggression becomes more likely when threat/arousal areas are highly active and control areas are underactive or poorly connected.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Aggression becomes more likely when threat/arousal areas are highly active and control areas are underactive or poorly connected.","correct":true,"explanation":"Strong activation of threat and arousal systems promotes rapid emotional responses, while weak or poorly connected control systems are less able to inhibit inappropriate aggression."},{"text":"Aggression becomes more likely when threat/arousal areas are underactive and control areas are highly active or well connected.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses both sides of the neural imbalance. Aggression is more likely when threat and arousal systems are highly active while control systems are underactive or poorly connected."},{"text":"Aggression becomes more likely when threat/arousal areas are highly active and control areas are highly active or well connected.","correct":false,"explanation":"Efficient, strongly connected control regions should improve inhibition rather than increase aggression. Risk rises when threat and arousal regions are highly active and control regions function weakly."},{"text":"Aggression becomes more likely when threat/arousal areas are underactive and control areas are underactive or poorly connected.","correct":false,"explanation":"Reduced activation of threat systems does not produce the heightened threat response described by this model. Aggression is associated with highly active threat areas alongside weak control areas."}]},{"id":"e625a2d9-fe7d-4c58-a8be-7c93dc4f7a5f","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"In a threat-aggression sequence, what should the prefrontal cortex evaluate before action?","back":"The context and consequences.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The context and consequences.","correct":true,"explanation":"The prefrontal cortex considers situational meaning and likely outcomes, allowing it to regulate impulses and inhibit an aggressive response when that response would be inappropriate."},{"text":"The intensity of bodily arousal.","correct":false,"explanation":"Monitoring arousal alone cannot establish whether aggression is appropriate or what its results might be. The prefrontal cortex should evaluate the context and consequences before action."},{"text":"The fastest available motor response.","correct":false,"explanation":"Selecting the quickest movement bypasses deliberation and resembles an impulsive threat response. The prefrontal cortex instead evaluates the context and consequences before permitting action."},{"text":"The location of the hypothalamus.","correct":false,"explanation":"Locating another brain region is not the relevant decision-making function. Before action, the prefrontal cortex evaluates the context and likely consequences of responding."}]},{"id":"3ffb9918-2efa-477e-970d-1442fac784e0","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why is the hypothalamus not a “violence button”?","back":"It prepares action after danger is interpreted; it does not cause aggression alone.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It prepares action after danger is interpreted; it does not cause aggression alone.","correct":true,"explanation":"The hypothalamus coordinates bodily readiness only after other systems have interpreted a possible danger. Aggression depends on wider neural, psychological and situational influences."},{"text":"It causes violence whenever danger is interpreted; no other brain systems are needed.","correct":false,"explanation":"This is the exact deterministic misconception behind the “violence button” label. The hypothalamus prepares action after danger is interpreted, but activation alone does not inevitably cause aggression."},{"text":"It interprets danger before bodily arousal begins; it alone decides whether aggression occurs.","correct":false,"explanation":"Threat interpretation is strongly associated with structures such as the amygdala. The hypothalamus helps prepare bodily action after interpretation, although it cannot cause aggression alone."},{"text":"It prevents action after danger is interpreted; it suppresses all aggressive responses.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the hypothalamus’s role in fight-or-flight. It helps prepare the body for action after danger is interpreted, but does not independently produce aggression."}]},{"id":"287470a9-76ee-4b87-9d6e-3b25fa03657b","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which brain-imaging method did Raine et al. (1997) use?","back":"PET scanning.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"PET scanning.","correct":true,"explanation":"Raine et al. used positron emission tomography to compare patterns of glucose metabolism, and therefore estimated brain activity, in murderers and matched controls."},{"text":"fMRI scanning.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses metabolic imaging with measurement of blood-oxygen changes. Raine et al. used PET scanning to estimate brain activity through glucose metabolism."},{"text":"MRI scanning.","correct":false,"explanation":"Structural MRI produces detailed anatomical images rather than the glucose-metabolism measure used in the study. Raine et al. used PET scanning."},{"text":"EEG recording.","correct":false,"explanation":"EEG records electrical activity through electrodes placed on the scalp. Raine et al. instead used PET scanning to examine regional glucose metabolism."}]},{"id":"34649dd2-7d2a-4f71-8c91-164cde3e4b50","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"PET scanning estimates activity by measuring [ ]; higher glucose use suggests [ ].","back":"PET scanning estimates activity by measuring glucose metabolism; higher glucose use suggests higher brain activity.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"PET scanning estimates activity by measuring glucose metabolism; higher glucose use suggests higher brain activity.","correct":true,"explanation":"PET uses a radioactive tracer to estimate regional glucose consumption. Neurons require more glucose when working harder, so greater metabolism indicates greater brain activity."},{"text":"PET scanning estimates activity by measuring blood oxygenation; higher glucose use suggests higher brain activity.","correct":false,"explanation":"Blood oxygenation is the signal commonly associated with fMRI, not PET. PET estimates glucose metabolism, with greater glucose use indicating greater brain activity."},{"text":"PET scanning estimates activity by measuring glucose metabolism; higher glucose use suggests lower brain activity.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the relationship between energy use and neural activity. PET estimates glucose metabolism, and greater glucose consumption indicates that a region is more active."},{"text":"PET scanning estimates activity by measuring electrical activity; higher glucose use suggests lower brain activity.","correct":false,"explanation":"Scalp electrical activity is measured using EEG, not PET, and increased glucose use indicates greater rather than lower activity. PET estimates glucose metabolism."}]},{"id":"00efed74-2e39-4714-8bad-99714d70adb6","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"In Raine et al. (1997), 41 murderers pleading not guilty by reason of insanity were compared with whom?","back":"41 matched controls.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"41 matched controls.","correct":true,"explanation":"The researchers compared the 41 murderers with 41 participants matched on relevant characteristics, helping reduce the likelihood that basic group differences explained the PET scan results."},{"text":"41 psychiatric patients.","correct":false,"explanation":"Psychiatric patients would not provide the matched non-murderer comparison used in the study. The murderers were compared with 41 matched controls to limit confounding group differences."},{"text":"41 violent offenders.","correct":false,"explanation":"Convicted violent offenders might share characteristics associated with aggression, making them unsuitable as the control group. Raine et al. used 41 matched controls instead."},{"text":"41 prison inmates.","correct":false,"explanation":"Although prison inmates may seem like a relevant comparison, they were not the reported control group. The study compared the murderers with 41 matched controls."}]},{"id":"c077f13e-86b6-42ea-93fd-eb492e25e4a7","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Which control-related area showed reduced activity in Raine et al.’s murderer group?","back":"The prefrontal cortex.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The prefrontal cortex.","correct":true,"explanation":"The prefrontal cortex helps regulate impulses, decision-making and behaviour. Reduced activity there was identified in the murderer group and could contribute to weakened behavioural control."},{"text":"The amygdala.","correct":false,"explanation":"The amygdala is strongly associated with emotional processing and aggression, making it a tempting choice. However, the control-related area showing reduced activity was the prefrontal cortex."},{"text":"The hippocampus.","correct":false,"explanation":"The hippocampus is principally associated with memory and spatial processing rather than executive behavioural control. Raine et al. reported reduced activity in the prefrontal cortex."},{"text":"The cerebellum.","correct":false,"explanation":"The cerebellum primarily coordinates movement and balance, so confusing general brain activity with behavioural control leads to this choice. The relevant area was the prefrontal cortex."}]},{"id":"0acae929-052a-4f19-a1be-d3185391d24e","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why does Raine’s reduced prefrontal activity finding support the brain explanation?","back":"It suggests weaker impulse control.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It suggests weaker impulse control.","correct":true,"explanation":"The prefrontal cortex supports inhibition and behavioural regulation. Reduced activity could therefore make it harder to suppress aggressive urges, suggesting weaker impulse control."},{"text":"It suggests stronger impulse control.","correct":false,"explanation":"Reduced prefrontal activity is linked to poorer rather than stronger regulation of behaviour. The finding supports the explanation because it suggests weaker impulse control."},{"text":"It suggests greater emotional arousal.","correct":false,"explanation":"Heightened emotional arousal is more directly associated with emotion-processing systems such as the amygdala. Reduced prefrontal activity instead suggests weaker impulse control over behaviour."},{"text":"It suggests improved moral reasoning.","correct":false,"explanation":"Improved moral reasoning would be inconsistent with impaired prefrontal functioning, which can undermine judgement and inhibition. The finding specifically suggests weaker impulse control."}]},{"id":"cfcab7f4-88a5-407b-bca0-480fb6bf752c","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What causality problem limits Raine et al. (1997)?","back":"It is correlational, so brain differences may not have caused violence.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It is correlational, so brain differences may not have caused violence.","correct":true,"explanation":"The study identified an association between brain activity and membership of the murderer group, but it could not establish direction of causation or exclude other contributing variables."},{"text":"It is experimental, so brain differences must have caused violence.","correct":false,"explanation":"Calling the study experimental wrongly implies that brain activity was manipulated and causation established. It was correlational, so the observed brain differences may not have caused violence."},{"text":"It is longitudinal, so brain differences developed after the violence.","correct":false,"explanation":"A longitudinal design follows change over time, but Raine’s comparison did not show that brain abnormalities preceded offending. It was correlational, so causation cannot be inferred."},{"text":"It is unreplicated, so brain differences cannot be measured reliably.","correct":false,"explanation":"Replication concerns whether a result can be reproduced, not whether one variable caused another. The key limitation is that the study was correlational and cannot establish causation."}]},{"id":"e32bb483-c464-415a-9973-930056441c35","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why may Raine et al.’s findings not generalise to everyday aggression?","back":"The sample was extreme murderers pleading insanity.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The sample was extreme murderers pleading insanity.","correct":true,"explanation":"People accused of murder and pleading insanity are highly unusual, so their neurological characteristics may not represent minor, common or non-criminal forms of aggression."},{"text":"The sample was ordinary adults showing aggression.","correct":false,"explanation":"The sample was not composed of ordinary adults displaying routine aggression. It consisted of extreme murderers pleading insanity, limiting generalisation to everyday behaviour."},{"text":"The sample was young offenders awaiting sentencing.","correct":false,"explanation":"Adolescent offenders might also limit population validity, but they were not Raine et al.’s distinctive sample. The participants were extreme murderers pleading insanity."},{"text":"The sample was clinical patients experiencing anxiety.","correct":false,"explanation":"Patients with anxiety would be an unrepresentative clinical group, but this does not describe the participants studied. The sample comprised extreme murderers pleading insanity."}]},{"id":"5165c2ab-df65-43a6-92dc-ad29241b5ad6","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Phineas Gage’s frontal-lobe damage was followed by more [ ] and socially inappropriate behaviour.","back":"Phineas Gage’s frontal-lobe damage was followed by more impulsive and socially inappropriate behaviour.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"impulsive","correct":true,"explanation":"After the accident damaged Gage’s frontal lobe, reports described poorer inhibition and personality change. His more impulsive behaviour supports the frontal lobe’s role in behavioural control."},{"text":"cautious","correct":false,"explanation":"Frontal-lobe damage did not make Gage more cautious; reports indicate reduced inhibition and poorer regulation. The blank should be filled by “impulsive”."},{"text":"self-controlled","correct":false,"explanation":"Greater self-control would contradict the reported loss of inhibition following Gage’s frontal-lobe injury. His behaviour became more impulsive and socially inappropriate."},{"text":"restrained","correct":false,"explanation":"The classic account emphasises disinhibition rather than increased restraint. Gage reportedly became more impulsive following frontal-lobe damage, alongside socially inappropriate behaviour."}]},{"id":"6411f61c-09dc-4c68-bdc6-69cc4ecfc646","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What did Yang and Raine (2009) find in antisocial or violent individuals?","back":"Often prefrontal structural or functional abnormalities.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Often prefrontal structural or functional abnormalities.","correct":true,"explanation":"Yang and Raine’s review found that antisocial and violent individuals often showed abnormalities in the prefrontal cortex, involving either its physical structure or its functioning."},{"text":"Often prefrontal structural and functional normality.","correct":false,"explanation":"The review did not conclude that prefrontal anatomy and activity were consistently normal. It identified frequent structural or functional abnormalities in this region."},{"text":"Often amygdala structural or functional abnormalities.","correct":false,"explanation":"Although the amygdala is relevant to aggression, this finding concerned abnormalities of the prefrontal cortex. It included both structural and functional differences."},{"text":"Often cerebellar structural or functional abnormalities.","correct":false,"explanation":"The cerebellum is mainly associated with movement and coordination, not the reviewed prefrontal deficits linked with antisocial behaviour. The finding was prefrontal structural or functional abnormalities."}]},{"id":"45a229a4-e61f-434a-a66f-fd0852267e33","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Why is protection from harm important in PET studies?","back":"PET scans may involve radioactive tracers.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"PET scans may involve radioactive tracers.","correct":true,"explanation":"PET imaging commonly requires injection of a radioactive tracer to reveal metabolic activity. Researchers must minimise exposure and screen participants to protect them from unnecessary harm."},{"text":"PET scans may involve loud magnetic pulses.","correct":false,"explanation":"PET does not expose participants to extremely loud magnetic pulses; this confuses it with aspects of MRI scanning. Protection matters because PET may involve radioactive tracers."},{"text":"PET scans may involve implanted electrical probes.","correct":false,"explanation":"Implanted electrical probes are associated with invasive neural recording, not standard PET imaging. PET protection procedures are important because the scans may involve radioactive tracers."},{"text":"PET scans may involve surgical tissue removal.","correct":false,"explanation":"PET scanning does not normally require surgical brain tissue removal. Its relevant physical risk comes from possible exposure to radioactive tracers used to map activity."}]},{"id":"b8bc090b-6c4a-4dab-a1f4-22d6b06669a6","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"A brain explanation becomes [ ] if it over-focuses on biology and underplays learning or social factors.","back":"A brain explanation becomes biologically reductionist if it over-focuses on biology and underplays learning or social factors.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"biologically reductionist","correct":true,"explanation":"Focusing narrowly on biological mechanisms while neglecting learning and social influences reduces complex aggression to a single biological level of explanation."},{"text":"environmentally deterministic","correct":false,"explanation":"Environmental determinism attributes behaviour primarily to external influences, whereas over-emphasising biology and neglecting social or learning factors makes the explanation biologically reductionist."},{"text":"socially reductionist","correct":false,"explanation":"Social reductionism would over-focus on social explanations. Here, the narrow emphasis is on biological processes, so the appropriate criticism is biological reductionism."},{"text":"biologically holistic","correct":false,"explanation":"A holistic explanation considers interacting biological, psychological and social factors. Over-focusing on biology does the opposite, making the explanation biologically reductionist."}]},{"id":"159d4ad3-dd10-4dc1-8fab-745a690fe058","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What balanced conclusion avoids biological determinism?","back":"Brain differences increase risk, not make aggression inevitable.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Brain differences increase risk, not make aggression inevitable.","correct":true,"explanation":"This probabilistic conclusion recognises that brain differences may raise the likelihood of aggression while allowing learning, social context and individual choice to influence behaviour."},{"text":"Brain differences determine aggression, making it inevitable.","correct":false,"explanation":"Treating brain differences as determining aggression is biological determinism. A balanced conclusion is that they increase risk rather than making aggressive behaviour inevitable."},{"text":"Brain differences have no influence, because aggression is learned.","correct":false,"explanation":"Rejecting all biological influence replaces biological determinism with an equally unbalanced environmental account. Brain differences can increase risk without completely determining aggression."},{"text":"Brain differences cause aggression, regardless of social factors.","correct":false,"explanation":"Ignoring social factors assumes a direct, unavoidable biological cause. The balanced view is that brain differences increase risk while interacting with learning and environment."}]}]}],"examCountdown":{"examDate":"2027-05-18","paperLabel":"Paper 1"},"heading":"Brain structure and aggression","title":"Brain structure and aggression Flashcards","topbar":{"backHref":"/a-level/psychology/edexcel/flashcards"},"topicSidebar":"$L38"}]}],"topicId":"85522a00-11a0-5624-8901-181880d2fdc8","walled":"$L39"}],"$L3a","$L3b"]