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and psychological influences determine whether that vulnerability develops into offending."},{"text":"Biology is a fixed cause, not an influence.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reflects biological determinism by treating offending as inevitable. Biology is correctly framed as a risk factor whose effects depend on interaction with environmental and psychological influences."},{"text":"Biology is a complete explanation, not one factor.","correct":false,"explanation":"Crime cannot be explained completely by biology because behaviour has multiple interacting causes. Biology is a risk factor rather than a sufficient explanation of offending."},{"text":"Biology is an irrelevant factor, not a predictor.","correct":false,"explanation":"Rejecting biology entirely overlooks evidence linking brain function and genetics to behavioural vulnerability. Biology is a risk factor, although it does not make criminal behaviour inevitable."}]},{"id":"525b471b-1183-4177-b408-a2ad9e764624","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Biology may increase [ ] to impulsivity/aggression, especially with [ ].","back":"Biology may increase vulnerability to impulsivity/aggression, especially with environmental factors.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Biology may increase vulnerability to impulsivity/aggression, especially with environmental factors.","correct":true,"explanation":"Biological characteristics can create vulnerability rather than certainty. Impulsivity or aggression is particularly likely when this vulnerability interacts with adverse environmental factors."},{"text":"Biology may increase immunity to impulsivity/aggression, especially with environmental factors.","correct":false,"explanation":"Biological explanations propose increased vulnerability, not protection or immunity. Adverse environmental factors can interact with that vulnerability and raise the likelihood of impulsive or aggressive behaviour."},{"text":"Biology may increase vulnerability to impulsivity/aggression, especially with protective factors.","correct":false,"explanation":"Protective factors generally reduce the expression of biological vulnerabilities. The proposed risk is especially important when biological vulnerability combines with adverse environmental factors."},{"text":"Biology may increase certainty to impulsivity/aggression, especially with genetic isolation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Biology does not make impulsivity or aggression certain, and genetic isolation is not the relevant interaction. It increases vulnerability, particularly alongside environmental risk factors."}]},{"id":"6555cd45-2bba-4de2-b03e-969a6d4b58a1","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What psychological effect can prefrontal cortex damage have?","back":"Weaker impulse control and inhibition.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Weaker impulse control and inhibition.","correct":true,"explanation":"The prefrontal cortex regulates behaviour and suppresses inappropriate responses. Damage can therefore weaken impulse control and inhibition, making immediate or aggressive reactions harder to restrain."},{"text":"Stronger impulse control and inhibition.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the expected effect of prefrontal damage. Because this region helps regulate and suppress behaviour, damage is associated with weaker impulse control and inhibition."},{"text":"Sharper visual perception and recognition.","correct":false,"explanation":"Visual perception and recognition are primarily associated with posterior visual-processing regions, not the main behavioural effect described here. Prefrontal damage weakens impulse control and inhibition."},{"text":"Greater hearing sensitivity and localisation.","correct":false,"explanation":"Hearing sensitivity and sound localisation depend mainly on auditory pathways and temporal regions. Prefrontal damage is instead associated with weaker impulse control and behavioural inhibition."}]},{"id":"8b76c965-5daa-4208-863f-32a82f4ec6c6","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Damage to the prefrontal cortex may reduce [ ] and make it harder to consider [ ].","back":"Damage to the prefrontal cortex may reduce inhibition and make it harder to consider consequences.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Damage to the prefrontal cortex may reduce inhibition and make it harder to consider consequences.","correct":true,"explanation":"The prefrontal cortex supports behavioural inhibition and forward planning. Damage can reduce the ability to suppress impulses and evaluate the likely consequences of an action."},{"text":"Damage to the prefrontal cortex may reduce excitation and make it harder to consider consequences.","correct":false,"explanation":"The relevant psychological function is inhibition, not general neural excitation. Prefrontal damage can weaken behavioural restraint and make the future consequences of actions harder to evaluate."},{"text":"Damage to the prefrontal cortex may reduce inhibition and make it harder to consider sound frequency.","correct":false,"explanation":"Sound frequency is processed mainly by auditory systems and is not the decision-making deficit highlighted here. Reduced inhibition makes it harder to consider consequences before acting."},{"text":"Damage to the prefrontal cortex may reduce visual acuity and make it harder to consider colour contrast.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses prefrontal functions with visual processing. Prefrontal damage is associated with reduced inhibition and greater difficulty considering the consequences of behaviour."}]},{"id":"53ba963c-62f4-4e39-8187-17b4766f3dc9","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What may happen when weak prefrontal control combines with strong amygdala anger responses?","back":"Risk of impulsive aggression increases.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Risk of impulsive aggression increases.","correct":true,"explanation":"Strong amygdala anger responses create emotional arousal, while weak prefrontal control provides insufficient restraint. Together, these processes increase the risk of rapid, impulsive aggression."},{"text":"Risk of impulsive aggression disappears.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the predicted interaction. Strong anger responses combined with weak executive restraint increase, rather than eliminate, the risk of impulsive aggression."},{"text":"Risk of careful deliberation increases.","correct":false,"explanation":"Weak prefrontal control makes careful evaluation and restraint less likely, not more likely. Combined with strong amygdala anger responses, it increases impulsive aggression."},{"text":"Risk of emotional detachment increases.","correct":false,"explanation":"Strong amygdala anger responses indicate heightened emotional reactivity rather than detachment. When prefrontal control is weak, the resulting risk is impulsive aggression."}]},{"id":"8c00942e-6cf4-48bb-89dc-c20246b16948","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What did Phineas Gage’s case illustrate?","back":"Frontal-lobe damage was linked to a more impulsive personality.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Frontal-lobe damage was linked to a more impulsive personality.","correct":true,"explanation":"After frontal-lobe injury, Gage reportedly became less restrained and more impulsive. His case therefore illustrated a possible connection between frontal brain function and personality regulation."},{"text":"Frontal-lobe damage was linked to a more cautious personality.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the reported personality change. Gage became less restrained and more impulsive after frontal-lobe damage, suggesting that this region contributes to behavioural control."},{"text":"Temporal-lobe damage was linked to a more impulsive personality.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses the location of Gage’s injury. His case involved frontal-lobe damage, which was linked to reduced restraint and a more impulsive personality."},{"text":"Frontal-lobe damage was linked to a more reserved personality.","correct":false,"explanation":"Gage’s reported change was towards impulsivity and poor social restraint, not greater reserve. The case linked frontal-lobe damage to a more impulsive personality."}]},{"id":"0baee309-ab04-4e27-b7dd-bddbde30af57","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why is Phineas Gage weak evidence for crime causation?","back":"It is a case study, so cannot prove a general causal link.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It is a case study, so cannot prove a general causal link.","correct":true,"explanation":"A single case may reveal an association but cannot establish that frontal damage generally causes crime. Individual differences and the absence of controlled comparison limit causal conclusions."},{"text":"It is a laboratory experiment, so cannot reflect natural behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"Gage’s evidence did not come from a controlled laboratory experiment; it was a case study. Its main weakness is that one unusual individual cannot prove a general causal link."},{"text":"It is a large-scale survey, so cannot establish brain damage.","correct":false,"explanation":"The evidence was not collected through a large-scale survey. It came from a single case study, which cannot demonstrate a general causal relationship between brain damage and crime."},{"text":"It is a twin study, so cannot separate shared environments.","correct":false,"explanation":"Gage’s case did not involve twins or comparisons of shared environments. It was an individual case study, meaning its findings cannot prove a general causal link."}]},{"id":"1fb60799-3ffb-4a2d-9e79-0e261854e7ff","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What did Raine et al. (1997) find in murderers pleading not guilty by reason of insanity?","back":"Reduced activity in areas including the prefrontal cortex.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Reduced activity in areas including the prefrontal cortex.","correct":true,"explanation":"PET scans showed lower activity in brain areas including the prefrontal cortex. This supports an association between impaired executive control and serious violent offending."},{"text":"Increased activity in areas including the prefrontal cortex.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses Raine et al.’s finding. The murderers showed reduced prefrontal activity, which may relate to weaker inhibition, planning and control of aggressive impulses."},{"text":"Reduced activity in areas including the primary motor cortex.","correct":false,"explanation":"The key reported reduction concerned the prefrontal cortex, not the primary motor cortex. Prefrontal underactivity is relevant because it may weaken behavioural inhibition and decision-making."},{"text":"Reduced activity in areas including the auditory cortex.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses executive-control regions with areas responsible for hearing. Raine et al. reported reduced activity in areas including the prefrontal cortex."}]},{"id":"58f550b0-97a9-4aa2-a488-5700ce2bfb3b","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What is the cause-and-effect problem with brain-scan evidence?","back":"Abnormal brain activity may be a correlate, not the original cause.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Abnormal brain activity may be a correlate, not the original cause.","correct":true,"explanation":"Brain scans show an association between abnormal activity and offending, but they cannot establish whether the abnormality caused the behaviour, resulted from it, or reflects another factor."},{"text":"Abnormal brain activity proves a direct cause of criminal behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"Treating correlation as proof of causation is the central error. Brain-scan evidence identifies an association, so abnormal activity may be a correlate rather than the original cause."},{"text":"Criminal behaviour always produces permanent abnormalities in the brain.","correct":false,"explanation":"This assumes the reverse causal direction without evidence and overstates the permanence of brain differences. Scans show correlation, not whether offending caused the abnormal activity."},{"text":"Brain scans can identify the original cause of criminal behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"Brain scans measure structural or functional differences but cannot establish their causal origin. Abnormal activity may merely correlate with criminal behaviour rather than cause it."}]},{"id":"5bc166d4-7554-4480-b24f-5f701c5ccb24","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"The amygdala is involved in [ ] and [ ].","back":"The amygdala is involved in threat detection and emotional learning.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The amygdala is involved in threat detection and emotional learning.","correct":true,"explanation":"The amygdala helps detect potentially threatening stimuli and supports learning about the emotional significance of events, including associations between cues and fear."},{"text":"The amygdala is involved in threat detection and motor coordination.","correct":false,"explanation":"Motor coordination is primarily associated with structures such as the cerebellum, not the amygdala. The amygdala is involved in threat detection and emotional learning."},{"text":"The amygdala is involved in language production and emotional learning.","correct":false,"explanation":"Language production is mainly associated with cortical language areas such as Broca’s area. The amygdala’s relevant functions are threat detection and emotional learning."},{"text":"The amygdala is involved in spatial navigation and reward calculation.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses the amygdala with hippocampal and reward-system functions. In explanations of aggression, the amygdala is associated with threat detection and emotional learning."}]},{"id":"1043a8fe-f2e8-4a4e-b4aa-8502568470c9","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How may an over-reactive amygdala increase reactive aggression?","back":"Ambiguous cues may be misread as threatening.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Ambiguous cues may be misread as threatening.","correct":true,"explanation":"An over-reactive amygdala can produce excessive threat responses, causing unclear facial expressions or social signals to be interpreted as hostile and triggering reactive aggression."},{"text":"Ambiguous cues may be misread as harmless.","correct":false,"explanation":"Interpreting ambiguous cues as harmless would be less likely to provoke defensive aggression. An over-reactive amygdala instead makes such cues more likely to be misread as threatening."},{"text":"Ambiguous cues may be misread as rewarding.","correct":false,"explanation":"Reward interpretation is not the proposed pathway from amygdala over-reactivity to reactive aggression. The mechanism involves ambiguous cues being misread as threatening."},{"text":"Ambiguous cues may be misread as irrelevant.","correct":false,"explanation":"Treating unclear cues as irrelevant would reduce rather than heighten an aggressive response. Over-reactivity increases threat sensitivity, so ambiguous cues may be misread as threatening."}]},{"id":"af19f200-50d1-4e21-adfc-48a182e08f10","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"How may an under-functioning amygdala relate to psychopathic traits?","back":"It may reduce fear learning and empathy.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It may reduce fear learning and empathy.","correct":true,"explanation":"Under-functioning may impair learning from punishment or threatening consequences and weaken emotional responses to others’ distress, contributing to reduced fear and empathy in psychopathy."},{"text":"It may increase fear learning and empathy.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the proposed relationship. Amygdala under-functioning is associated with weaker fear conditioning and reduced responsiveness to others’ distress, so it may reduce fear learning and empathy."},{"text":"It may reduce spatial memory and intelligence.","correct":false,"explanation":"This confuses amygdala functions with broader cognitive and hippocampal processes. The relevant link to psychopathic traits is reduced fear learning and empathy, not lower intelligence."},{"text":"It may improve punishment learning and guilt.","correct":false,"explanation":"Improved learning from punishment and stronger guilt would work against typical psychopathic traits. Under-functioning is instead linked to reduced fear learning and empathy."}]},{"id":"73b86264-eaf4-4e85-bbd5-c6ed170fa161","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What did Coccaro et al. (2007) find?","back":"Heightened amygdala responses to angry faces in intermittent explosive disorder.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Heightened amygdala responses to angry faces in intermittent explosive disorder.","correct":true,"explanation":"Coccaro et al. found increased amygdala reactivity when people with intermittent explosive disorder viewed angry faces, supporting a link between heightened threat processing and impulsive aggression."},{"text":"Reduced amygdala responses to angry faces in intermittent explosive disorder.","correct":false,"explanation":"This reverses the direction of Coccaro et al.’s result. Participants with intermittent explosive disorder showed heightened, not reduced, amygdala responses to angry faces."},{"text":"Heightened hippocampal responses to angry faces in intermittent explosive disorder.","correct":false,"explanation":"This substitutes the hippocampus, which is especially associated with memory, for the region reported in the study. Coccaro et al. found heightened amygdala responses to angry faces."},{"text":"Heightened amygdala responses to happy faces in intermittent explosive disorder.","correct":false,"explanation":"This changes the emotionally significant stimulus in the finding. Coccaro et al. reported heightened amygdala responses specifically to angry faces, which signal possible social threat."}]},{"id":"c8f8d663-8f2c-41a6-b874-3548a7a67ec8","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why should the amygdala not be called an aggression centre?","back":"It is part of a wider emotion-regulation system.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It is part of a wider emotion-regulation system.","correct":true,"explanation":"Aggression emerges from interactions between the amygdala and other regions, including regulatory prefrontal areas. The amygdala therefore contributes within a network rather than acting as a single centre."},{"text":"It operates as an isolated aggression-control module.","correct":false,"explanation":"This is the localisation error the warning rejects. The amygdala interacts with prefrontal and other brain regions as part of a wider emotion-regulation system."},{"text":"It is part of a wider motor-coordination system.","correct":false,"explanation":"Motor coordination is primarily associated with systems including the cerebellum and motor cortex. The amygdala contributes to aggression through a wider emotion-regulation system."},{"text":"It is part of a wider language-production system.","correct":false,"explanation":"Language production mainly depends on specialised cortical regions rather than the amygdala. The amygdala belongs to a wider emotion-regulation system relevant to aggressive responses."}]},{"id":"a595a5c7-66df-459f-a3a7-de5a024010fe","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"XYY syndrome means a biological male has an extra [ ], usually due to [ ].","back":"XYY syndrome means a biological male has an extra Y chromosome, usually due to nondisjunction.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"XYY syndrome means a biological male has an extra Y chromosome, usually due to nondisjunction.","correct":true,"explanation":"XYY syndrome results when a biological male has an additional Y chromosome. This usually arises through nondisjunction, when chromosomes fail to separate correctly during cell division."},{"text":"XYY syndrome means a biological male has an extra X chromosome, usually due to nondisjunction.","correct":false,"explanation":"An extra X chromosome in a biological male produces an XXY pattern, not XYY syndrome. XYY involves an extra Y chromosome, usually caused by nondisjunction."},{"text":"XYY syndrome means a biological male has an extra Y chromosome, usually due to gene mutation.","correct":false,"explanation":"The additional chromosome is not normally produced by mutation within a gene. XYY syndrome usually results from nondisjunction, a failure of chromosomes to separate properly."},{"text":"XYY syndrome means a biological male has an extra chromosome 21, usually due to fertilisation.","correct":false,"explanation":"An extra chromosome 21 describes trisomy 21 rather than XYY syndrome, and fertilisation alone is not the error. XYY involves an extra Y caused by nondisjunction."}]},{"id":"384aba12-cc63-4266-8e75-23452e68f1eb","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"Why is the XYY supermale idea wrong?","back":"XYY does not automatically cause criminal behaviour.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"XYY does not automatically cause criminal behaviour.","correct":true,"explanation":"Most males with XYY do not become criminals, so the chromosome pattern is not a deterministic cause of offending. Behaviour is shaped by interacting biological and environmental factors."},{"text":"XYY automatically causes violent behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"This repeats the deterministic supermale misconception. XYY does not automatically cause criminal behaviour, and most males with the chromosome pattern are not violent offenders."},{"text":"XYY guarantees increased criminal behaviour.","correct":false,"explanation":"A biological characteristic cannot be treated as guaranteeing a complex social behaviour. XYY does not automatically cause criminal behaviour, which has multiple interacting influences."},{"text":"All criminals possess an extra Y chromosome.","correct":false,"explanation":"Most criminals do not have XYY syndrome, and most males with XYY are not criminals. The supermale idea is wrong because XYY does not automatically cause offending."}]},{"id":"33f7f5a3-a2d5-4e03-b3a8-056c0b02936f","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"XYY may increase anti-social risk indirectly through [ ] or [ ].","back":"XYY may increase anti-social risk indirectly through learning difficulties or impulsivity.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"XYY may increase anti-social risk indirectly through learning difficulties or impulsivity.","correct":true,"explanation":"Learning difficulties may increase school failure and social exclusion, while impulsivity can reduce behavioural control. Both therefore provide indirect pathways from XYY to increased anti-social risk."},{"text":"XYY may increase anti-social risk indirectly through high intelligence or patience.","correct":false,"explanation":"High intelligence and patience would generally support problem-solving and behavioural control rather than raise anti-social risk. The proposed indirect pathways are learning difficulties and impulsivity."},{"text":"XYY may increase anti-social risk indirectly through empathy or self-control.","correct":false,"explanation":"Empathy and self-control usually inhibit harmful or unlawful behaviour, so they do not explain increased risk. Learning difficulties and impulsivity are the suggested indirect influences."},{"text":"XYY may increase anti-social risk indirectly through academic achievement or cautiousness.","correct":false,"explanation":"Academic achievement and cautiousness are protective characteristics rather than plausible routes to anti-social behaviour. XYY may instead act indirectly through learning difficulties or impulsivity."}]},{"id":"3bc998e4-765a-45d5-8712-1ded2662b1cf","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why was Jacobs et al. (1965) biased evidence for XYY and crime?","back":"The sample already contained institutionalised men.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"The sample already contained institutionalised men.","correct":true,"explanation":"Institutionalised men are not representative of the wider male population and are more likely to have behavioural or criminal histories, creating sampling bias in the XYY evidence."},{"text":"The sample already contained randomly selected men.","correct":false,"explanation":"A sample drawn randomly from the general population would reduce, rather than create, selection bias. Jacobs et al. used institutionalised men, who were already an unrepresentative group."},{"text":"The sample already contained non-offending men.","correct":false,"explanation":"Studying non-offending men would not explain why the evidence exaggerated an XYY-crime association. The crucial bias was that participants were institutionalised and therefore unrepresentative."},{"text":"The sample already contained community-based men.","correct":false,"explanation":"Community-based men would provide a more representative test of any XYY-crime link. The study was biased because its sample consisted of institutionalised men."}]},{"id":"3cd5abb8-aa09-49d9-acd4-bdc12b951b8b","cardType":"basic","points":1,"front":"What did Witkin et al. (1976) find about XYY and violent crime?","back":"XYY males had more convictions, but not especially for violent crime.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"XYY males had more convictions, but not especially for violent crime.","correct":true,"explanation":"Witkin et al. found a higher overall conviction rate among XYY males, but the increase was not specifically concentrated in violent offences."},{"text":"XYY males had more convictions, but not especially for property crime.","correct":false,"explanation":"The study did not find that XYY convictions were disproportionately for property offences. Its important conclusion was that convictions increased, but not especially for violent crime."},{"text":"XYY males had more convictions, but not especially for drug crime.","correct":false,"explanation":"The finding was not specifically about drug offences. Witkin et al. reported more convictions overall among XYY males, without a distinctive increase in violent crime."},{"text":"XYY males had more convictions, but not especially for fraud offences.","correct":false,"explanation":"The study did not identify fraud as the offence category lacking a special increase. The key challenge to the stereotype was the absence of a particular link with violent crime."}]},{"id":"c136a663-1993-4440-8bc3-90d9924ecd0f","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why is XYY a weak explanation for gender differences in crime?","back":"

Only applies to biological males.
Rare, so explains a tiny proportion.

","mcqOptions":[{"text":"

Only applies to biological males.
Rare, so explains a tiny proportion.

","correct":true,"explanation":"XYY can occur only in biological males, but it is extremely rare. It therefore cannot account for male offending generally or more than a tiny proportion of crime."},{"text":"

Equally applies to all biological sexes.
Common, so explains a large proportion.

","correct":false,"explanation":"XYY does not apply equally to all sexes and is not common in the population. It occurs only in biological males and is too rare to explain broad gender differences."},{"text":"

Only applies to biological females.
Rare, so explains most offending.

","correct":false,"explanation":"XYY is not limited to biological females, as the Y chromosomes mean it occurs in males. Its rarity also prevents it from explaining most offending."},{"text":"

Only applies to biological males.
Widespread, so explains most offending.

","correct":false,"explanation":"Although XYY applies only to biological males, it is rare rather than widespread. Consequently, it cannot provide a general explanation for the gender difference in offending."}]},{"id":"726c54f2-8857-41ac-a661-dcdbfb0be34a","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"What is the reductionist weakness of biological crime explanations?","back":"They reduce complex crime to biology, ignoring social/learning factors.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"They reduce complex crime to biology, ignoring social/learning factors.","correct":true,"explanation":"Crime results from interacting biological, cognitive, learning and social influences. Explaining it primarily through biology oversimplifies this complexity and neglects environmental contributions."},{"text":"They reduce simple reflexes to learning, ignoring genetic factors.","correct":false,"explanation":"Including social and learning factors would make an explanation less biologically reductionist, not more so. The weakness is reducing complex crime to biology while ignoring those influences."},{"text":"They reduce biological processes to society, ignoring physiological factors.","correct":false,"explanation":"Explaining biological processes through social influences reverses the relevant criticism. Biological crime explanations are reductionist because they reduce complex offending to biology and overlook social or learned causes."},{"text":"They reduce complex crime to culture, ignoring biological factors.","correct":false,"explanation":"Treating crime as culturally determined would be a form of social reductionism, not the biological reductionism asked about. Biological accounts simplify complex crime to biological causes."}]},{"id":"4d20aa22-8e51-4a2f-94af-5dbc3161f828","cardType":"basic","points":2,"front":"Why is biological crime research ethically sensitive?","back":"It may stigmatise people as dangerous using sensitive biological data.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"It may stigmatise people as dangerous using sensitive biological data.","correct":true,"explanation":"Linking biological characteristics to criminality can label people as inherently dangerous despite uncertain prediction. Sensitive genetic or neurological information could consequently produce discrimination and stigma."},{"text":"It may anonymise people as dangerous using sensitive biological data.","correct":false,"explanation":"Anonymising participants protects confidentiality and reduces ethical risk rather than creating it. The central concern is that biological findings may stigmatise people as dangerous."},{"text":"It may reassure people as dangerous using sensitive biological data.","correct":false,"explanation":"Reassuring people is not the principal ethical danger posed by biological crime research. The concern is harmful stigmatisation based on sensitive and potentially misinterpreted biological data."},{"text":"It may educate people as dangerous using sensitive biological data.","correct":false,"explanation":"Educating people about biological evidence is not itself the ethical problem. Research becomes sensitive when biological information is used to stigmatise individuals or groups as dangerous."}]},{"id":"415f2d65-f7d7-45dc-a231-76b9e44d781b","cardType":"cloze","points":null,"front":"Independent offender-control comparisons may use [ ].","back":"Independent offender-control comparisons may use Mann-Whitney U.","mcqOptions":[{"text":"Mann-Whitney U","correct":true,"explanation":"Mann-Whitney U is a non-parametric test of difference suitable for comparing scores from two independent groups, such as separate offender and control samples."},{"text":"Wilcoxon signed-rank","correct":false,"explanation":"Wilcoxon signed-rank tests a difference between related or repeated-measures scores, not two independent groups. Independent offender-control data may instead be analysed using Mann-Whitney U."},{"text":"related t-test","correct":false,"explanation":"A related t-test requires paired participants or repeated measurements, so it does not fit independent offender and control samples. Mann-Whitney U is the appropriate non-parametric comparison."},{"text":"Spearman’s rho","correct":false,"explanation":"Spearman’s rho tests for a correlation between co-variables rather than a difference between two independent groups. Mann-Whitney U can test the offender-control difference."}]}]}],"examCountdown":{"examDate":"2027-05-18","paperLabel":"Paper 1"},"heading":"Biological explanations of crime","title":"Biological explanations of crime Flashcards","topbar":{"backHref":"/a-level/psychology/edexcel/flashcards"},"topicSidebar":"$L37"}]}],"topicId":"135ba94a-11a9-5f11-b875-66074baab859","walled":"$L38"}],"$L39","$L3a"]